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State nationalism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

State nationalism or state-led nationalism[1] is a nationalism that equates 'state identity' with 'nation identity' or values state authority. 'State nationalism' is considered a form of 'civic nationalism' and there are similarities between the two, but state nationalism also has to do with illiberal, authoritarian and totalitarian politics.[2][3][4][n 1]

Conceptual framework

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State nationalism is a "top-down" process where the state apparatus creates and promotes a national identity to secure political legitimacy. Unlike ethnic nationalism, which typically emerges as a "bottom-up" movement from shared ancestry, state nationalism relies on the existing legal and political boundaries of the state. Scholars like Anthony D. Smith categorize this as a feature of "territorial nations," where the state exists before a coherent sense of national belonging is formed. In this model, the state uses institutions—such as public education, military service, and official language policies—to assimilate diverse populations into a single national body.[2][4][6][7][8][9][10]

While civic nationalism is broadly associated with political liberalism, state nationalism is more closely aligned with conservatism, emphasizing social cohesion and public order.[11][12]

By countries

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Asia

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In the East Asian cultural sphere, including China, "state nationalism" and "statism" are both written as 國家主義,[n 2] making the distinction between the two unclear.[13][14] Also, in the East Asian cultural sphere, state nationalism is often contrasted with ethnic-based national liberation movements.[15][16][17]

China

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Republic of China (1912–1949)
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Chiang Kai-shek promoted strong ROC-based Chinese nationalism throughout the territories under his control, as well the Tridemist ideal of a unified "Dang Guo" (Party-state), to solidify its rule and ideological supremacy.[18] Mandarin Chinese became the sole official language, and standard education curriculums emphasized Chinese history with Confucianism culture.[19][20]

People's Republic of China
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Today, Chinese state nationalism is a civic nationalistic ideology.[2] It reduces Hong Kong's autonomy and justifies the dictatorship of the Chinese Communist Party.[21][22][23]

Japan

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Kokkashugi (国家主義), variously translated as "statism"[24] and "nationalism",[25] "state-nationalism"[26] and "national socialism",[27] was the ruling ideology of the Empire of Japan, particularly during the first decades of the Shōwa era. Japan's unique form of Kokkashugi is closer to religious nationalism centered on State Shinto than to Minzokushugi (民族主義), variously translated as "ethnic nationalism".[28]

Japan's ultranationalism (e.g. Shōwa statism) is often described as "state ultranationalism"[29] because it values state unity around the Emperor of Japan.[29]

Another term in Japan that means "state nationalism" is Kokuminshugi (国民主義), which is used in a somewhat different context from Kokkashugi and carries a less authoritarian and more strongly civic-nationalistic connotation; Japanese liberal political scientist Masao Maruyama opposed Kokkashugi and Minzokushugi, and supported Kokuminshugi.[30]

Korea

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State-aligned nationalism (Korean: 국가주의; Hanja: 國家主義; MR: kukkajuŭi), state nationalism or "statism" is a nation building based on 'state/country' (국가) identity; it appears in North Korea as nationalism emphasizing the "Democratic People's Republic of Korea" identity and in South Korea as nationalism emphasizing the "Republic of Korea" identity. These forms of nationalism are called "North Korean nationalism" and "South Korean nationalism", respectively, and are distinct from the general Korean nationalism (minjok).[21]

North Korea
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Early North Korean nationalism was socialist patriotism based on Marxism–Leninism, but it was replaced by Juche. This ideology has historically been closely related to Korean nationalism and reunification; beginning in 2023, North Korea abandoned the goal of reunification and stopped emphasizing national ties with South Korea, instead designating South as an hostile state.

South Korea
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South Korean nationalism is a form of nationalism that stands out in the South Korea. In the 20th century, South Korean nationalism was hardly distinguished from anti-communist Korean nationalism, but South Korean nationalism in the 21st century has relatively weakened the ethno-nationalism of "Korean people" and the state identity of "Republic of Korea" is more prominent among the some youth. Today, South Korea–based state nationalism is advocated by some conservative forces, while left-leaning forces are more inclined to anti-imperialistic ethnic nationalism.[31][32][33]

In 1945, Korea was liberated from Japanese colonial rule, the northern Korea was occupied by the Soviet Union, and the southern Korea was occupied by the United States. by the United States. Northern Korea was quickly taken over by the communists, with Kim Il Sung as the focal point, so from early in 1947, Syngman Rhee insisted on establishing a "separate government in South Korea" (남한 단독 정부), acknowledging the difficulties in establishing a unified Korean government. Rhee's stance faced opposition from many pan-Korean nationalists.[34][35][36][37] Park Chung-hee, who became president in 1961, insisted on "development first, unification later" (선경제 후통일), as he began to place more emphasis on the South Korean economy than on Korean unification.[38] Modern South Korean nationalist and patriotic sentiments are deeply related to Park's legacy.[39]

Gukppong (국뽕) is a derogatory Korean word that is used to pejoratively describe a South Korean nationalist. The word is made up of the Korean word guk (국), which means country or state, and ppong (뽕) which is believed to have originated from the word philopon (覚醒剤), which is a Japanese slang for the drug methamphetamine. As a result, the word literally means "intoxicated with nationalism".[40]

Mongolia

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Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal during the People's Republic of Mongolia is an example of state nationalism.[41]

Singapore

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Singaporean nationalism is regarded as an example of 'authoritarian civic nationalism' or 'state nationalism'; Singapore establishes English as its official language, enforces an Ethnic Integration Policy (EIP), defends state authority through strict law enforcement, and instills the identity of being Singaporean people. In Singapore's state nationalist discourses, the "Pioneer Generation" is emphasized; these are those born before December 31, 1949, who led the independence and early growth of the Republic of Singapore, and those who acquired Singaporean citizenship before December 31, 1986; their diligence and adherence to the national strategy formulated by the state are deeply connected to Singapore's flourishing and rise.[42][43][44]

Lee Kuan Yew was the first Singaporean leader to emphasize a nation which created a national interest amongst the splintered cultures of Singapore. This was done as a transformative approach to the national hegemony at the time which was eroding due to a lapse in time from the historical conditions that led to the original underlying Marxist ideology of the PAP, among other things.[45] Although it may have been the pragmatic approach to Marxism that was the catalyst of a First World Singapore, it was also Lee Kuan Yew's national interest approach which allowed the success of Singapore to grow. The weakening hold of pragmatism acted as a Petri dish allowing for new concepts such as communitarianism to implant itself in the national consciousness. Recent global political trends tend to fill pragmatic voids with liberal democracy such as after the fall of the Soviet Union and most of its satellite nations. However, due to Singapore's majority ethnic Chinese (coupled with a sense of retaliatory ethnic pride against the then recent Malaysian expulsion) and its Confucian mentality, formal democratic processes were framed within a communitarian ideology. This ideological communitarian veil over Singaporean democracy includes such actions as the PAP's attempt to redirect cultural and political development towards traditional values. This redirection was perceived as way of resisting the "corrupting influences of an incipient Westernisation", or in other words a way to Confucianise society.[46]

Turkey

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Kemalism can also be referred to as Turkish state nationalism.[47]

Vietnam

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In Vietnam, the expression chủ nghĩa quốc gia, dating back to the 1930s, came to refer to anti-communist nationalism, particularly in the Republic of Vietnam during the height of the Cold War.[48]

Europe

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Belarus

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The Belaya Rus has been described as a political party, a state nationalist, pro-Russian–Belarusian integration, and as a party whose purpose is to promote the interests of Alexander Lukashenko.[49]

France

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State nationalism during the French Revolution, also referred to as "Jacobin nationalism", was civic in character but collectivist in doctrine.[50] The legacy of the revolution laid the groundwork for long-term state-led nationalism, which later culminated in the late 19th century with the institutional focus on "turning peasants into Frenchmen". This process involved the "invention of tradition" within the nation, achieved by documenting national histories, erecting monuments in public spaces, and producing patriotic artworks to forge a unified national identity.[51]

Integral nationalism (as argued by the French far-right theorist Charles Maurras) is closely linked to state nationalism, which is an attempt to create an integrated and clearly defined nation-state through a centrally manipulated state ideology. For example, aiming for a single-language state despite the existence of multiple languages within a state's borders.[52] As Umut Özkırımlı states, "civic" (or "state") nations can be as intolerant and cruel as the so-called "ethnic" nations, citing French Jacobin techniques of persecution that were utilized by 20th-century fascists.[53]

Gaullism, a centre-right French conservative ideology that emerged in the 20th century, is linked to the Bonapartist tradition; Charles de Gaulle established parties based on centralized state nationalism.[54]

Italy

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In Italian fascism, state nationalist sentiment appears in the slogan Benito Mussolini: "Tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, nulla contro lo Stato" ("Everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against the State"); this illustrates the fascist principle of statolatry, where the state is elevated to a spiritual entity that absorbs all aspects of private and national life.[55][56][57]

Russia

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Vladimir Putin’s authoritarian nationalism, due to its imperialist character, is closer to a multi-ethnic, corporatist, cult of personality and fascistic state-nationalism than to a single ethno-nationalism; since the early 2010s, the Putin regime has been suppressing ethnic nationalism in Russia (whether ethno-Russian chauvinism or ethnic separatism).[58] Putin’s discourse on state nationalism speaks of a linear development toward a bright future, emphasizing only the bright side of life while ignoring the dark side; it was influenced by Soviet nationalism.[59]

Former Soviet Union

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Spain

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Francoism is marked by 'state nationalism' based on authoritarianism.[4]

North America

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United States

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In the United States, "state nationalism" refers to two distinct but related concepts: state-level nationalism (loyalty to certain U.S. states rather than the federal government) and structural state nationalism (promoting the U.S. identity of the federal government); this section covers structural nationalism.

Scholars describe structural state nationalism in the United States as an inherent property of the modern federal apparatus, where the state acts as a top-down mechanism to secure and define the boundaries of the national identity.[9] This top-down framework relies on federal institutional authority to construct a unified "state-nation" out of a politically and regionally diverse population, a process that historically contrasts with bottom-up ethnic nationalism.[10]

Historically, this structural nationalism has manifested through federal policies designed to standardize citizenship and enforce unified political loyalty. The federal government utilizes legal and rational frameworks—such as post–Civil War constitutional amendments, centralized immigration restrictions, and institutionalized civic rituals—to assimilate competing regional identities into a singular, overarching American civic identity, grounding national belonging firmly within the legal framework of the federal state.[9][10]

South America

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Argentina

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In Argentina's politics, Peronism is regarded as an example of state nationalism.[60] It promotes an inclusive form of nationalism that embraces all ethnicities and races as integral parts of the nation, distinguishing it from racial or chauvinistic ethno-nationalism that prioritizes a single ethnic group.[61]

Venezuela

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Venezuela’s "socialism of the 21st century" is associated with socialist patriotism and left-wing nationalism, and has been described as a form of state nationalism that uses oil revenue to achieve economic development and wealth redistribution under state control.[62]

Opposition

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Authority ("top-down") aspect of state nationalism is criticized by "bottom-up" ethnic nationalists (especially secessionists): they speak of "state nationalism" to discredit the legitimacy of the larger state, since state nationalism is perceived as less authentic and less democratic; Flemish separatists speak of Belgian nationalism as a state nationalism; Basque separatists and Corsican separatists refer to Spain and France, respectively, in this way; South Korean state nationalism is strongly rejected by left-wing Korean nationalists because it is partly influenced by Japan's para-fascist kokkashugi; Hong Kong nationalists oppose Chinese state nationalism because of its connection to authoritarianism in the CCP.[63][64]

In Latin America, there is criticism that non-indigenous-led civic (liberal) or state nationalism has paradoxically alienated indigenous communities; as an alternative, Indigenism (or Indigenismo) has emerged as a form of ethnic nationalism based on indigenous identity.[65]

See also

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  • Imperialism – empires often invoked state nationalism to counter separatist nationalism among ethnic minorities
  • Invented tradition – cultural practices constructed by states to foster national identity and loyalty
  • Integral nationalism – an authoritarian form of nationalism that subordinates all aspects of society to the state
  • Patriotism – devotion and loyalty to a state or country, often overlapping with civic or state nationalism[66]
    • Socialist patriotism – a form of patriotism promoted by Marxist–Leninist states, often used to foster loyalty to the state and its ideology
  • Statolatry – the ideological glorification of the state, central to fascist state nationalism
  • Unionism (disambiguation) – advocating for the maintenance of a unified state against regional or separatist movements

Other state nationalisms

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Notes

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  1. ↑ One of the terms used in a similar or sometimes identical sense to this is authoritarian civic nationalism, which is often contrasted with 'liberal civic nationalism'. This form of nationalism is characterized primarily by elitist elements (non-ethnic or multi-ethnic) rather than civil rights. However, there are also examples of state nationalism, including Canadian nationalism, that are non-authoritarian.[5]
  2. ↑

References

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  1. ↑ Liu Li; Fan Hong (14 July 2017). The National Games and National Identity in China. Taylor & Francis. p. 4.
  2. 1 2 3 Mohammad Ateeque. Identity Conscience Nationalism and Internationalism. Educreation Publishing. p. 52.
  3. ↑ Jacob T. Levy (2000). The Multiculturalism of Fear. OUP Oxford. p. 87.
  4. 1 2 3 J. C. Chatturvedi (2005). Political Governance: Political theory. Isha Books. p. 75.
  5. ↑ Henders, Susan J., ed. (2004). Democratization and Identity: Regimes and Ethnicity in East and Southeast Asia. Lexington Books. pp. 50–53.
  6. ↑ Anthony D. Smith (1991). National Identity. Penguin Books. pp. 80–85, 110–116.
  7. ↑ Benedict Anderson (1983). Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Verso. pp. 83–111.
  8. ↑ Eric Hobsbawm; Terence Ranger, eds. (1983). The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge University Press. pp. 263–307.
  9. 1 2 3 Joppke, Christian (2024). "Neoliberal nationalism and immigration policy". Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. Retrieved July 20, 2026.
  10. 1 2 3 Wang, Bo; McBeath, Jerry (2020). "US–China Relations: Nationalism, the Trade War, and COVID-19". Journal of Chinese Political Science. PMC 7533044. Retrieved July 20, 2026.
  11. ↑ "Post-War Korean Conservatism, Japanese Statism, and the Legacy of President Park Chung-hee in South Korea". The Korean Journal of International Studies. 16 (1): 57–76. April 2018. doi:10.14731/kjis.2018.04.16.1.57.
  12. ↑ Heywood, Andrew (2017). Political Ideologies: An Introduction (6th ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 170–177.
  13. ↑ N. Serina Chan (November 11, 2011). The Thought of Mou Zongsan. Brill. p. 73. ISBN 978-90-04-21212-1.
  14. ↑ Clemens Büttner; Li Fan; Zhang Ke; Tze-Ki Hon; Sun Qing; Zhang Qing; Mirjam Tröster; Huang Xingtao; Zhiyi Yang; Zou Zhenhuan (June 24, 2011). Discourses of Weakness in Modern China: Historical Diagnoses of the »Sick Man of East Asia«. Campus Verlag. p. 270. ISBN 978-3-593-50902-0.
  15. ↑ Gayle, Curtis Anderson (2003-08-29). Marxist History and Postwar Japanese Nationalism. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203217771. ISBN 978-1-134-43159-5.
  16. ↑ Myers, Brian Reynolds (December 28, 2016). "Still the Unloved Republic". Sthele Press. Archived from the original on March 13, 2018. Retrieved June 26, 2019. ... Someone who is asked by a pollster whether he is prouder of the Taehan minguk or of the minjok therefore knows which answer is better, more progressive-sounding. In all likelihood he is not prouder of the republic than of his Koreanness. One should be wary of polls on this issue that were not conducted precisely and clearly.
  17. ↑ Baogang He (8 July 2015). Governing Taiwan and Tibet: Democratic Approaches. Edinburgh University Press. p. 81.
  18. ↑ "當俄革命時". 國父思想總論. 國立國父紀念館. Retrieved 1 March 2025.
  19. ↑ Sandel, Todd (2003). "Linguistic Capital in Taiwan: The KMT's Mandarin Language Policy and Its Perceived Impact on Language Practices of Bilingual Mandarin and Tai-Gi Speakers". Language in Society. 32 (4): 523–51. doi:10.1017/S0047404503324030. S2CID 145703339 – via Cambridge Core.
  20. ↑ Hubbs, Elizabeth (2013). "Taiwan Language-In-Education Policy: Social, Cultural and Practical Implications". Arizona Working Papers in SLA & Teaching. 20: 76–95 – via The University of Arizona.
  21. 1 2 Hankwon Kim (2022). Cultural and State Nationalism: South Korean and Japanese Relations with China. American University.
  22. ↑ Jonathan Unger (26 September 2016). Chinese Nationalism. Taylor & Francis.
  23. ↑ Chang, Che (1 December 2020). "The Nazi Inspiring China's Communists". The Atlantic.
  24. ↑ Tamanoi, Mariko Asano (2008-10-31). Memory Maps: The State and Manchuria in Postwar Japan. University of Hawaii Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-8248-6359-3.
  25. ↑ Stegewerns, Dick (2005-07-27). "The dilemma of nationalism and internationalism in modern Japan". In Stegewerns, Dick (ed.). Nationalism and Internationalism in Imperial Japan: Autonomy, Asian Brotherhood, Or World Citizenship?. Routledge. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-135-79060-8.
  26. ↑ Julia C., Schneider (2023-07-31). "Chinese Nationalism in Late Qing Times: How to (not) change a multi-ethnic empire into a homogenous nation-state". In Zhouxiang, Lu (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Nationalism in East and Southeast Asia. Taylor & Francis. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-000-91168-8.
  27. ↑ Hofmann, Reto (2015-07-09). The Fascist Effect: Japan and Italy, 1915–1952. Cornell University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-8014-5636-7. ...the literal translation of kokkashugi is "state socialism." This rendering reflects its proponents' emphasis on the state as an institution to solve economic and social problems. But the adherents of this ideology often translated kokkashugi as "national socialism," and contemporaries often remarked about the parallels with German National Socialism. For example, the title of the journal of this school of thought was kokkashakaishugi, which they translated as "national socialism."
  28. ↑ Skya W. A. Japan's Holy War: The Ideology of Radical Shinto Ultranationalism. Duke University Press, 2009.
  29. 1 2 Thomas R.H. Havens (March 8, 2015). Farm and Nation in Modern Japan: Agrarian Nationalism, 1870-1940. Princeton University Press. p. 319.
  30. ↑ Gayle, Curtis Anderson (2003-08-29). Marxist History and Postwar Japanese Nationalism. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203217771. ISBN 978-1-134-43159-5.
  31. ↑ "[Column] Distorting nation". The Hankyoreh. 2 April 2008. The booklet titled An Alternative Textbook of Modern and Contemporary Korean History (Daean Gyogwaseo Hanguk Geun-Hyeondae Sa) demonstrates something about that civil war. The publication adopts in full the historical interpretations of the book "Looking Again at History Around the Time of Liberation" ("Haebang Jeonju Sa-ui Jae Insik"), published two years ago by "New Right" scholars and received with much fanfare by conservative newspapers. The authors of these two publications reject minjok, the Korean people, and believe in gukga, the state.
  32. ↑ Cloudy forecast for Moon's 'Sunshine Policy 2.0' Archived 31 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine East Asia Forum (2017. 07. 20).
  33. ↑ 건국절 논란, 국가주의 vs 민족주의 사이에서. 뉴스워치. 3 August 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2024.
  34. ↑ 김인식 / kim In sik (2009). 대한민국 정부수립과 안재홍: 정부수립주체론을 중심으로 [The Establishment of the Republic of Korea and An Jae-Hong: An Analysis of the Theory of Leadership for the New Government]. vol.8, no.1, pp. 5-25. "남한단독정부수립이 현실화하는 상황에서, 안재홍은‘순정우익’의 개념으로 중간우파의 이념지표를 제시하며 이들을 정치세력화하려 하였다." [The establishment of a separate government in South Korea was becoming a reality and under such circumstances An Jae-Hong attempted to organize the moderate right into a political power by presenting ‘Pure Rightists’(Sunj˘ong Uik) as their ideological principle.].
  35. ↑ Lee Sang-Hoon. "Syngman Rhee's Vision and Reality: The Establishment of the Nation and Thereafter" (PDF). 국가 오픈액세스 플랫폼. p. 28. Retrieved 11 July 2026. ... These criticisms can be summarized as follows. First, while the scope of the state was clearly defined in the Constitution as including the entire Korean peninsula, Syngman Rhee pushed ahead with the establishment of a separate government in South Korea only, thus passing the burden of the national division into two Koreas onto ensuing generations following the foundation of the country ...
  36. ↑ Civil Affairs Division (1948). U.S. Army Forces in Korea, South Korean Interim Government Activities, U.S. Army Military Government in Korea. p. 170. Dr. Rhee is too great a patriot to advocate, or to contemplate, the eternal division of Korea. But, as a realist, he feels that, in view of the adamant attitude of the Soviet authorities, the unification of Korea is impossible in the foreseeable future and that, for the present, it can only be achieved by the setting up of a separate government in South Korea , which should be recognized by the United Nations as the national government of Korea In one word, Dr. Rhee and his followers stand for a national government in South Korea.
  37. ↑ James I. Matray (April 18, 2016). Crisis in a Divided Korea: A Chronology and Reference Guide. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. April 18, 2016. Early in 1947, Rhee went to Washington to lobby for a policy creating a separate government in South Korea , arguing that the Soviet Union never would permit a free government for all of Korea.
  38. ↑ Frederick Betz (January 2013). Prime-movers in a commodity industry. p. 303.
  39. ↑ Brandon L. Santos (2018). "South Korean Nationalism and the Legacy of Park Chung Hee" (PDF). Retrieved 11 July 2026.
  40. ↑ "[The Fountain] The two faces of gukppong (KOR)". JoongAng Daily. 2023-04-18. Retrieved 2026-03-23. Gukppong is a portmanteau of guk (nation) and ppong (slang for drugs), which likens a sense of national pride to an emotionally elated state after using drugs
  41. ↑ "Tsedenbal's Mongolia and the Communist Aid Donors: A Reappraisal". Wilson Center. Retrieved 2024-05-22.
  42. ↑ Nicholas Michelsen; Pablo De Orellana, eds. (October 4, 2022). Global Nationalism : Ideas, Movements And Dynamics In The Twenty-first Century. World Scientific Publishing Company. p. 36. This national culture of success, not unlike many other "national cultures," is built on tropes such as hard work and sacrifice, the mythologising of older generations, and the romanticisation of past struggles. This is best encapsulated in the government's hagiographical promotion of the "pioneer generation." Perhaps the closest primordial link to the Singapore nation in state nationalist discourses, the "pioneer generation" refers to the independence-era generation who exemplified hard work and, implicitly, acquiescence with the national strategy set by Lee Senior which allowed for the economic flourishing and rise of the Singapore material nation.
  43. ↑ Joshua Castellino; Elvira Domínguez Redondo (2006). Minority Rights in Asia: A Comparative Legal Analysis. Oxford University Press. p. 200. Thus Singapore's role in globalization was ... facilitated and legitimated by the ... regime's promotion of a collectivist and developmentalist civic nationalism', which justified authoritarian rule based both on 'a civic institutionalist framework, and on the inculcation of patriotic pride'.
  44. ↑ CN Naruse (2013). "Singapore, State Nationalism, and the Production of Diaspora". Comparative Literature and Culture. Retrieved 1 August 2026.
  45. ↑ Chua, Beng-Huat (1995). Communitarian Ideology and Democracy in Singapore. Routledge, ISBN 0-415-16465-6.
  46. ↑ Said, Edward (1979). Orientalism. New York: Vintage.
  47. ↑ Cengiz Gunes (2020). The Political Representation of Kurds in Turkey: New Actors and Modes of Participation in a Changing Society. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 6.
  48. ↑ Tran, Nu-Anh (2023). "Denouncing the 'Việt Cộng': Tales of revolution and betrayal in the Republic of Vietnam". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 53 (4): 694. doi:10.1017/S0022463422000790.
  49. ↑ Suzdaltsev, Andrey (2023). "The Presidentialization of Belarusian Political Parties". In Marina Glaser; Ivan Krivushin; Mara Morini (eds.). The Presidentialization of Political Parties in Russia, Kazakhstan and Belarus. Springer Nature. p. 144. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-25977-7. ISBN 978-3-031-25977-7.
  50. ↑ Keating, Michael (2001). "Nations, Nationalism and the State". Nations against the State. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–22. doi:10.1057/9780230374348_1. Retrieved October 4, 2026.
  51. ↑ Weber, Eugen (1976). Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914. Stanford University Press.
  52. ↑ Tom Gullberg (2000). State, Territory and Identity: The Principle of National Self-determination, the Question of Territorial Sovereignty in Carinthia and Other Post-Habsburg Territories After the First World War. Åbo Akademi University Press. p. 28.
  53. ↑ Özkırımlı, Umut (2005). Contemporary Debates on Nationalism: A Critical Introduction (1st ed.). London: Red Globe Press. pp. 27–28. ISBN 9780333947739.
  54. ↑ Badie, Bertrand; Berg-Schlosser, Dirk; Morlino, Leonardo (eds.). "Parties". International Encyclopedia of Political Science. SAGE Publishing. doi:10.4135/9781412959636.n413. Retrieved October 4, 2026.
  55. ↑ Benito Mussolini (1935). The Doctrine of Fascism. Rome: Ardita Publishers. pp. 7–10.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  56. ↑ Roger Griffin (1991). The Nature of Fascism. Pinter Publishers. pp. 36–39.
  57. ↑ Michael Mann (2004). Fascists. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–16.
  58. ↑ Bluhm, Katharina; Varga, Mihai (18 June 2025). "Russia's Right and the Putin regime". Journal of Political Ideologies. doi:10.1080/13569317.2025.2519729. The Putin regime's state nationalism project has been called fascist, given its authoritarianism, cult of personality, and strong-handed corporatism. ... While the geopolitical current and Christian Right gradually gained political importance under Putin and represent the Russian right's core, ethnonationalism in all its variants was repressed from the early 2010s.
  59. ↑ Lena Jonson (February 20, 2015). Art and Protest in Putin's Russia. Taylor & Francis. Like the Soviet tradition, Putin discourse on state nationalism tells of a linear development towards a bright future, emphasizing the bright side of life while ignoring the dark sides.
  60. ↑ Romero, Luis Alberto (2010). "Democracia, república y estado: cien años de experiencia política en la Argentina". In Russell, Roberto (ed.). Argentina 1910–2010: Balance del siglo (PDF) (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Taurus. En la larga historia de las relaciones entre el estado y los intereses, la singularidad del peronismo fue su capacidad para articularlos en términos políticos y también culturales. En su doctrina, la clave estaba en la "comunidad organizada", una idea que arraigaba tanto en el nacionalismo estatal como en la tradición tomista del catolicismo. [In the long history of relations between the state and interests, the uniqueness of Peronism was its ability to articulate them in political as well as cultural terms. In its doctrine, the key lay in the 'organized community', an idea rooted as much in state nationalism as in the Thomist tradition of Catholicism.]
  61. ↑ Rein, Raanan (2022). "Challenging the Argentine Melting Pot: Peronism, Hispanidad, and Cultural Diversity". Journal of Contemporary History. 57 (3): 691–707. doi:10.1177/00220094211065994. ISSN 0022-0094.
  62. ↑ Vázquez Flores, Marco Antonio (May 2020). Venezuela: Los alcances y límites de la estrategia antiimperialista y anticapitalista del gobierno de Hugo Chávez (Master's thesis thesis) (in Spanish). National Autonomous University of Mexico. La versión del "socialismo del siglo XXI" como transición estadocéntrica es más bien, una estrategia antimperialista que viene a reconfigurar el capitalismo venezolano bajo un nacionalismo estatal que utilice la renta petrolera para dotarse de un desarrollo económico que implique una distribución más equitativa de la riqueza, una forma que de manera contundente deja fuera la autogestión, para más bien establecer un movimiento estadocéntrico y colocarse como un Estado en busca de la defensa de la autonomía nacional. [The version of '21st-century socialism' as a state-centric transition is rather an anti-imperialist strategy that reconfigures Venezuelan capitalism under a state nationalism that uses oil revenue to achieve economic development involving a more equitable distribution of wealth—a form that decisively excludes self-management in order to establish a state-centric movement and position itself as a state in defense of national autonomy.]
  63. ↑ 한국의 파시즘은 사라졌나: 일본 극우에 사상적 뿌리둔 박정희의 유산… 무의식에 깔린 잔재마저 청산해야 [Has Korean fascism disappeared?: Park Jeong-hee's legacy is ideologically rooted in the far right of Japan... Even the remnants of unconsciousness must be cleared.]. The Hankyoreh (in Korean). November 18, 1999. Retrieved October 9, 2021.
  64. ↑ Daniel Cetrà; Coree Brown Swan (2022). State and Majority Nationalism in Plurinational States. Taylor & Francis. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-000-81250-3. On 1 July 2019, a group of protesters stormed the legislative council, graffitied it with political slogans and calls for reform, and placed a British Hong Kong colonial flag on the central podium-the ultimate statement of Hong Kong nationalism, or at least opposition to Chinese state nationalism.
  65. ↑ Stefano Varese. "Crítica de la razón distópica. Homenaje a la imaginación utópica de Martin Diskin y Guillermo Bonfil Batalla". SciELO México (in Spanish). Retrieved 5 September 2026.
  66. ↑ Taras Kuzio (February 2014). Theoretical and Comparative Perspectives on Nationalism: New Directions in Cross-Cultural and Post-Communist Studies. Columbia University Press. p. 219. Civic Nationalism (sometimes also called state nationalism or patriotism) is also often defined as that which incorporates all three of these ideological trends.
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