Uxhakaxholo

uXhakaxholo uhlelo lwembulunga yonke lwamahleloxhumano ezlsicikizi axhumene olusebenzisa iGumelo loxhakaxholo (Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) ukuze kube nokuxhumana okulula phakathi kwamahleloxhumano nezilekeleli. Lunguxhoxho lwamahleloxhumano oluqukethe amahleloxhano asisulu, awomphakathi, awamanyuvesi, awemihwebo, nawohulumeni bezindawo nawembulunga, wonke ahlanganiswe ndawonye ubuchwepheshe obusebenzisa amazuba, obungenazo izindophi kanye nobezinxoza zokukhanya. UXhakaxholo luqukethe izinsiza zokwaziswa eziningi kanye nezinkonzo, okubalwa kuzo imiqulu exhumene ngesiqakaqulu (hypertext) kanye namahlelokusebenza oLwebu Lomhlaba Wonke (WWW), umbikombani, ucingo lokuxhumana, kanye nokwabelana ngezihele.

Indabuko yoxhakaxholo iseminyakeni yowezi-1960, lapho ucwaningo olwalwenziwa uMnyango wezokuVikela waseMelika lwavumela ukuba kube nokucobelelana ngesikhathi phakathi kweziCikizi. Uhleloxhano oluyinhloko oluyisanduleli, i-ARPANET, lwalusebenza njengesiseko sokuxhumana phakathi kwamaxhoxho ezifunda kwezemfundo nakwezempi eminyakeni yowezi-1970. Uxhaso ngokwezimali oluvela kwa-National Science Foundation lwaba yisiseko esisha ngowezi-1980. Lona kanye noxhaso olwaluvela kwabezoHwebo, lwaholela kubambiswano lomhlaba wonke ekuthuthukiseni ezobuchwepheshe ezintsha kwezohleloxhumano, kanye nasekuhlanganisweni kwamahleloxhano amaningi. Ukuxhunywa kwamahleloxhumano abezohwebo namabhizinisi ekuqaleni kweminyaka yowezi-1990 kwaphawula isiqalo sokufudukela kuXhakaxholo lwanamuhla, futhi kwaphehla ukukhula okuqhubekayo njengoba uhide lweziCikizi zezikhungu, abantu ngabanye, kanye neziphathwayo nazo zaxhunywa oxhoxhweni.

ukuchazwa kwebizo

Ibizo elithi "uxhakaxholo" lihumusha kahle elithi internet elinomsuka ochaza into exhakaxhene, noma exhoxhene (cishe lafana nelithi uxhoxho) kodwa lisho into ephithene, yaxhoxhelana ngendlela exakayo. Liyafaneleka ngoba uxhakaxholo namuhla luyisimiso sembulunga samaxhoxho esicikizi axhakaxhumene.

Nawa amanye amagama ahlobene nokusetshenziswa kukaxhakaxholo:

Internet service - inkonzo yoxhakaxholo
online - kuxhakaxholo
cyber - uxhakaxholo
online service - inkonzo yoxhakaxholo
cyber attack - uhlaselo loxhakaxholo
internet browsing - ukuphequlula kuxhakaxholo
website - IsiZindalwebu

Nakuba abantu lapho bevakashela uLwebu LoMhlaba Wonke bevamise ukuthi bakuxhakaxholo, basuka beshaya eceleni ngoba abakwenzayo ukusebenzisa isiphequluli ukubuka amakhasi wolwebu. ULwebu loMhlaba Wonke luyingxenye eyodwa yezinkonzo eziningi zoxhakaxholo, luyiqoqoq lwemibhalo (amakhasi wolwebu) nezinye izinsiza zolwebu, ezikhongcwe ngamakhongcokazi namakheli wolwebu.

uMlando

Eminyakeni ye-1960, inhlangano ebizwa Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) engaphansi koMnyango wezoVikela waseMelika, yaxhasa ucwaningo lokucobelela-ngesikhathi kwezicikizi. Kulapho okwavelq khona nesu loxhoxho lomhlaba. Emva kokuvela lobuchwepheshe bokuqhebeza ngamapakethe, kwahlanganiswa amaxhoxho amaningana afana NPL, eyahlanganiswa noxhoxho lwe-ARPANET nezinye izinsizakusebenza wokwabelana ngamaxhoxho ezifana ne-Merit Network kanye ne-CYCLADES.

Ingqalasizinda

Ingqalasizinda yokuxhumana yoxhakaxholo ihilela izigcoyi eziphathekayo kanye nesimiso sezingwimba zamahlelokusebenza kokubili okulawula izici ezihlukene zokwakheka kwayo. Njenganoma yiliphi uxhoxho lwesiCikizi olukhona, uxhakaxholo luhilela izikhondisi (routers), izinsiza (ezinjengezindophi namakhongco womsakazo) iziphindi, izibhensi njll. Kodwana, njengesibobelo sokuxhakaxhoxholana, iningi lamaqhuzu woxhoxho awazona izinsiza zoxhakaxholo ngokwemfuneko, amakhikhilezo woxhakaxholo asuke athwelwe ngamanye amagumelo wokuxhoxhelana kuyilapho uxhakaxholo lona luyindinganiso yoxhoxho lohlobo olulodwa, egununda ezinsizeni eziphathekayo ezinhlobonhlobo, lusebenzisa amakhikhilezo aqondiswe lapho abhekise amabombo khona ngezikhondisi.

Izingqimba zenkonzo

UkuBaluleka koXhakaxholo

UXhakaxholo lubalulekile esikhathini samanje ngoba ulwazi oluningi luqukethwe kulo. Abantu akusadingeki ukuthi baye kobheka ulwazi emtapweni wolwazi noma bathenge amaphephandaba ukuze bathole ulwazi, sekulula manje umuntu ungena kuxhakaxholo athole lokho akufunayo noma ikuphi esebenzisa isicikizi noma umakhalekhukhwini. UXhakaxholo futhi lwenza ukuxhumana phakathi kwabantu emhlabeni jikelele kube lula futhi kungambi eqolo. Usukwazi ukuxhumana nomuntu okwelinye izwe nixoxe indaba yenu niyiqede nibukana, lobu ubuchwephese be-video calling.

Okubalulekile ngoxhakaxholo ukuthi luyakwazi ukuthatha umhlaba wonke liwusondeze, liwubeke esihenqweni sesiCikizi noma umakhalekhukhwini. Ngoxhakaxholo abantu bayakwazi ukuxhumana nebhange, izitolo, imitapo yolwazi, izihlobo nabangani, ngingabala ngithini. Ukuthuthuka kobuchwepheshe boxhakaxholo sekuholele ekutheni kwenziwe imali esebenza khona kuxhakaxholo kuphela ukuthenga konke okudingayo. Lemali esebenza kuxhakaxholo kuphela ibizwa ngokuthi iNkecesomane (crypto currency), edume kakulu yaziwa ngokuthi yi-Bitcoin eyasungulwa ngonyaka wezi-2009 ngumlisa ozibiza ngoSatoshi Nakamoto.

UbuNgozi boXhakaxholo

UXhakaxholo lwenza ukuxhumana kwabantu kube lula, kanti ukuxhumana nako kunobungozi babo. Abantu bavame ukuthumela imininingwano yangasese, abanye abantu bayakwazi ukuyeba leyomininingwano. Bangasebenzisa uxhakaxholo ukubhebhethekisa amanga noma izimfihlo ezebiwe noma izeluleko ezinobungozi. Ngokomzekelo, uXhoxho lomphakathi olwaziwa ngo-Facebook lwake lwaba sezinkingeni ngokungavikeli imininingwano yabantu yangasese.

Amanye ama-websites angaqola abantu ukuba badawunilode amaGciwanyane angalimaza isiCikizi, noma ama-spyware apopola abasebenzisi (ahlola zonke izinto abazenzayo bese ezazisa omunye).

Ama-E-mails angaphatha amafayela anobungozi kuma "attachments".^[1]
Kuma-internet chatrooms, abantu bengazama ukuzingela abanye noma bezame ukubakhela uzungu noma bebahlukumeze.
UXhakaxholo luqukethe abantu abaningi abakubona njengokuhlukumezayo, nokuqonde ukuhlukumeza.
Izigilamkhuba zingeba imininingwano yabantu yangasese noma zibaqole ukuba babathumele imali.

Umlando

Ngo-1960, ososayensi bama khompuyutha baqala ukwakha izinhlelo Ukuhlanganyela isikhathi semithombo yama-computer.^[2]^[3] UJ. C. R. Licklider waletha umqondo wenethiwekhi yomhlaba wonke ngenkathi esebenza eBolt Beranek & Newman futhi, kamuva, wahola i-Information Processing Techniques Office e-I-Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) UMnyango Wezokuvikela wase-United States.^[4] Ucwaningo lokushintsha kwamaphakethe, omunye wezobuchwepheshe obuyisisekelo be-Intanethi, lwaqala emsebenzini UPaul Baran IRAND ekuqaleni kwawo-1960 futhi, ngokuzimela, UDonald Davies e-United Kingdom's I-National Physical Laboratory ngo-1965.^{[lower-alpha 1]}^[5]^[6]^[7]

Performance

Njengoba i-Intanethi iyinethiwekhi engafani, izici zayo ezingokomzimba, kufaka phakathi, ngokwesibonelo, izinga lokudlulisa imininingwane yokuxhumana, ehlukahlukene kakhulu. Ibonisa izenzakalo ezivelayo ezincike ekuhlelweni kwayo okukhulu.^[8]

Ukuphazamiseka kwezintambo zokuxhumana ezingaphansi kwamanzi kungabangela ukuvala noma ukwehla kwezindawo ezinkulu, njengokuphazamiseka kwezindophi ezingaphansi kwelanga ngonyaka wezi-2008. Izintambo zomhlaba nazo zisengozini, njengonyaka wezi-2011 lapho owesifazane ebhola insimbi esezingeni eliphansi ehlukanisa ukuxhumana okuningi kwesizwe sase-Armenia.^[9] Ukuvalwa kwe-inthanethi okuthinta cishe wonke amazwe kungafinyelelwa ohulumeni njengohlobo lokuhlolwa kwe-intanethi, njengokuvalwa kwe'I-Intanethi EGibhithe, lapho cishe u-93%^[10] wezinethiwekhi zazingenawo ukufinyelela ngonyaka wezi-2011 emizamweni wokuvimbela ukuqoqwa kwemibhikisho emelene nohulumeni.^[11]

Ukulinganisela Ukusetshenziswa kukagesi we-Intanethi bekulokhu kuyindaba yempikiswano, ngokusho kwephepha lokucwaninga elibuyekezwe ngabangane ngonyaka wezi-2014 elathatha izimangalo ezihlukile ngesibalo esingu-20,000 esishicilelwe ezincwadini phakathi neminyaka eyishumi eyedlule, kusukela ku-0.0064 kilowatt amahora nge-gigabyte edlulisiwe (kWh / GB) kuya ku-136 kWh / GB.^[12]

Imithombo

Umlando

Ngo-1960, ososayensi bama khompuyutha baqala ukwakha izinhlelo Ukuhlanganyela isikhathi semithombo yama-computer.^[2]^[3] UJ. C. R. Licklider waletha umqondo wenethiwekhi yomhlaba wonke ngenkathi esebenza eBolt Beranek & Newman futhi, kamuva, wahola i-Information Processing Techniques Office e-I-Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) UMnyango Wezokuvikela wase-United States.^[13] Ucwaningo lokushintsha kwamaphakethe, omunye wezobuchwepheshe obuyisisekelo be-Intanethi, lwaqala emsebenzini UPaul Baran IRAND ekuqaleni kwawo-1960 futhi, ngokuzimela, UDonald Davies e-United Kingdom's I-National Physical Laboratory ngo-1965.^{[lower-alpha 2]}^[5]^[6]^[14]

Amaphatho

↑ "Archive copy". Archived from the original on 2014-05-18. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 2013-07-05.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
1 2 F. J. Corbató, et al., The Compatible Time-Sharing System A Programmer's Guide (MIT Press, 1963) ISBN 978-0-262-03008-3. "To establish the context of the present work, it is informative to trace the development of time-sharing at MIT. Shortly after the first paper on time-shared computers by C. Strachey at the June 1959 UNESCO Information Processing conference, H.M. Teager and J. McCarthy delivered an unpublished paper "Time-Shared Program Testing" at the August 1959 ACM Meeting."
1 2 Lee, J.A.N. (1992). "Claims to the term 'time-sharing'". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 14 (1): 16–54. Bibcode:1992IAHC...14a..16L. doi:10.1109/85.145316.
↑ Hauben, Michael; Hauben, Ronda (1997). "5 The Vision of Interactive Computing And the Future". Netizens: On the History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet (PDF) (in i-English). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-8186-7706-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2021. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 2 March 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
1 2 "Inductee Details – Paul Baran". National Inventors Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 6 September 2017; "Inductee Details – Donald Watts Davies". National Inventors Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 6 September 2017.
1 2 Pelkey, James L.; Russell, Andrew L.; Robbins, Loring G. (2022). Circuits, Packets, and Protocols: Entrepreneurs and Computer Communications, 1968-1988 (PDF). Morgan & Claypool. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-4503-9729-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-04-23. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 2023-11-22. Paul Baran, an engineer celebrated as the co-inventor (along with Donald Davies) of the packet switching technology that is the foundation of digital networks
↑ Edmondson-Yurkanan, Chris (May 2007). "SIGCOMM's archaeological journey into networking's past". Communications of the ACM. 50 (5): 63–68. doi:10.1145/1230819.1230840. The 1960 challenge was to build a network such that a significant subset of the network could survive a military attack. [Baran] told us he knew he could design a solution once he realized that, 'given redundant paths, the reliability of the net work could be greater than the reliability of the parts.' ... In his first draft dated Nov. 10, 1965, Davies forecast today's 'killer app' for his new communication service: 'The greatest traffic could only come if the public used this means for everyday purposes such as shopping... People sending enquiries and placing orders for goods of all kinds will make up a large section of the traffic... Business use of the telephone may be reduced by the growth of the kind of service we contemplate.'
↑ Albert, Réka; Jeong, Hawoong; Barabási, Albert-László (September 1999). "Diameter of the World-Wide Web". Nature. 401 (6749): 130–131. arXiv:cond-mat/9907038. Bibcode:1999Natur.401..130A. doi:10.1038/43601.
↑ "Georgian woman cuts off web access to whole of Armenia". The Guardian. 6 April 2011. Archived from the original on 25 August 2013. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 11 April 2012. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
↑ Cowie, James. "Egypt Leaves the Internet". Renesys. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 28 January 2011.
↑ "Egypt severs internet connection amid growing unrest". BBC News. 28 January 2011. Archived from the original on 23 January 2012. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
↑ Coroama, Vlad C.; Hilty, Lorenz M. (February 2014). "Assessing Internet energy intensity: A review of methods and results" (PDF). Environmental Impact Assessment Review (in i-English). 45: 63–68. Bibcode:2014EIARv..45...63C. doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2013.12.004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2020. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 9 March 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
↑ Hauben, Michael; Hauben, Ronda (1997). "5 The Vision of Interactive Computing And the Future". Netizens: On the History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet (PDF) (in i-English). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-8186-7706-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2021. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 2 March 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
↑ Edmondson-Yurkanan, Chris (May 2007). "SIGCOMM's archaeological journey into networking's past". Communications of the ACM. 50 (5): 63–68. doi:10.1145/1230819.1230840. The 1960 challenge was to build a network such that a significant subset of the network could survive a military attack. [Baran] told us he knew he could design a solution once he realized that, 'given redundant paths, the reliability of the net work could be greater than the reliability of the parts.' ... In his first draft dated Nov. 10, 1965, Davies forecast today's 'killer app' for his new communication service: 'The greatest traffic could only come if the public used this means for everyday purposes such as shopping... People sending enquiries and placing orders for goods of all kinds will make up a large section of the traffic... Business use of the telephone may be reduced by the growth of the kind of service we contemplate.'

↑ Computers communicate over the Internet by breaking up messages (emails, images, videos, web pages, files, etc.) into small chunks called packets, which are routed through a network of computers, until they reach their destination, where they are assembled back into a complete message again.
↑ Computers communicate over the Internet by breaking up messages (emails, images, videos, web pages, files, etc.) into small chunks called packets, which are routed through a network of computers, until they reach their destination, where they are assembled back into a complete message again.

Cite error: <ref> tags exist for a group named "lower-alpha", but no corresponding <references group="lower-alpha"/> tag was found.

[1] "Archive copy". Archived from the original on 2014-05-18. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 2013-07-05.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)

[ctsspg-2] 1 2 F. J. Corbató, et al., The Compatible Time-Sharing System A Programmer's Guide (MIT Press, 1963) ISBN 978-0-262-03008-3. "To establish the context of the present work, it is informative to trace the development of time-sharing at MIT. Shortly after the first paper on time-shared computers by C. Strachey at the June 1959 UNESCO Information Processing conference, H.M. Teager and J. McCarthy delivered an unpublished paper "Time-Shared Program Testing" at the August 1959 ACM Meeting."

[Lee1992-3] 1 2 Lee, J.A.N. (1992). "Claims to the term 'time-sharing'". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 14 (1): 16–54. Bibcode:1992IAHC...14a..16L. doi:10.1109/85.145316.

[4] Hauben, Michael; Hauben, Ronda (1997). "5 The Vision of Interactive Computing And the Future". Netizens: On the History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet (PDF) (in i-English). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-8186-7706-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2021. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 2 March 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)

[NIHF2007-6] 1 2 "Inductee Details – Paul Baran". National Inventors Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 6 September 2017; "Inductee Details – Donald Watts Davies". National Inventors Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 6 September 2017.

[Pelkeyp42-7] 1 2 Pelkey, James L.; Russell, Andrew L.; Robbins, Loring G. (2022). Circuits, Packets, and Protocols: Entrepreneurs and Computer Communications, 1968-1988 (PDF). Morgan & Claypool. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-4503-9729-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-04-23. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 2023-11-22. Paul Baran, an engineer celebrated as the co-inventor (along with Donald Davies) of the packet switching technology that is the foundation of digital networks

[8] Edmondson-Yurkanan, Chris (May 2007). "SIGCOMM's archaeological journey into networking's past". Communications of the ACM. 50 (5): 63–68. doi:10.1145/1230819.1230840. The 1960 challenge was to build a network such that a significant subset of the network could survive a military attack. [Baran] told us he knew he could design a solution once he realized that, 'given redundant paths, the reliability of the net work could be greater than the reliability of the parts.' ... In his first draft dated Nov. 10, 1965, Davies forecast today's 'killer app' for his new communication service: 'The greatest traffic could only come if the public used this means for everyday purposes such as shopping... People sending enquiries and placing orders for goods of all kinds will make up a large section of the traffic... Business use of the telephone may be reduced by the growth of the kind of service we contemplate.'

[9] Albert, Réka; Jeong, Hawoong; Barabási, Albert-László (September 1999). "Diameter of the World-Wide Web". Nature. 401 (6749): 130–131. arXiv:cond-mat/9907038. Bibcode:1999Natur.401..130A. doi:10.1038/43601.

[10] "Georgian woman cuts off web access to whole of Armenia". The Guardian. 6 April 2011. Archived from the original on 25 August 2013. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 11 April 2012. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)

[renesys1-11] Cowie, James. "Egypt Leaves the Internet". Renesys. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 28 January 2011.

[12] "Egypt severs internet connection amid growing unrest". BBC News. 28 January 2011. Archived from the original on 23 January 2012. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)

[Environmental_Impact_Assessment_Review-13] Coroama, Vlad C.; Hilty, Lorenz M. (February 2014). "Assessing Internet energy intensity: A review of methods and results" (PDF). Environmental Impact Assessment Review (in i-English). 45: 63–68. Bibcode:2014EIARv..45...63C. doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2013.12.004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2020. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 9 March 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)

[14] Hauben, Michael; Hauben, Ronda (1997). "5 The Vision of Interactive Computing And the Future". Netizens: On the History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet (PDF) (in i-English). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-8186-7706-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2021. Kulandwe ngomhlaka 2 March 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)

[16] Edmondson-Yurkanan, Chris (May 2007). "SIGCOMM's archaeological journey into networking's past". Communications of the ACM. 50 (5): 63–68. doi:10.1145/1230819.1230840. The 1960 challenge was to build a network such that a significant subset of the network could survive a military attack. [Baran] told us he knew he could design a solution once he realized that, 'given redundant paths, the reliability of the net work could be greater than the reliability of the parts.' ... In his first draft dated Nov. 10, 1965, Davies forecast today's 'killer app' for his new communication service: 'The greatest traffic could only come if the public used this means for everyday purposes such as shopping... People sending enquiries and placing orders for goods of all kinds will make up a large section of the traffic... Business use of the telephone may be reduced by the growth of the kind of service we contemplate.'

[5] Computers communicate over the Internet by breaking up messages (emails, images, videos, web pages, files, etc.) into small chunks called packets, which are routed through a network of computers, until they reach their destination, where they are assembled back into a complete message again.

[15] Computers communicate over the Internet by breaking up messages (emails, images, videos, web pages, files, etc.) into small chunks called packets, which are routed through a network of computers, until they reach their destination, where they are assembled back into a complete message again.

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[lower-alpha 1]

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[14]