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1 determinate function
Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > determinate function
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2 determinate function
Математика: детерминированная функция -
3 determinate function
English-russian dictionary of physics > determinate function
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4 determinate function
English-Russian scientific dictionary > determinate function
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5 function
1) функция, действие || функционировать; действовать- essential functions - routine function - safety-related functions2) функциональное назначение; роль- circuit function - intrinsic function - metering function - primary function - robot function - planning function - service function - support function4) функциональный узел ( машины)5) матем. функциональная зависимость, функция- absolutely additive function - absolutely bounded function - absolutely continuous function - absolutely integrable function - absolutely monotone function - absolutely summable function - absolutely symmetric function - almost complex function - almost continuous function - almost convex function - almost everywhere defined function - almost everywhere finite function - almost invariant function - almost periodic function - almost recursive function - almost separably-valued function - almost separating function - almost universal function - analytically independent function - analytically representable function - approximately differentiable function - asymptotically differentiable function - asymptotically finite function - asymptotically uniformly optimal function - bounded below function - cellwise continuous function - circumferentially mean p-valent function - comparison function - complementary error function - complete analytic function - completely additive function - completely computable function - completely monotone function - completely multiplicative function - completely productive function - completely subadditive function - completely symmetrical function - completely undefined function - complex hyperbolic function - conditional risk function - countably multiplicative function - countably valued function - covariant function - cumulative distribution function - cumulative frequency function - deficiency function - double limit function - doubly periodic function - doubly recursive function - effectively computable function - effectively constant function - effectively decidable function - effectively variable function - elementarily symmetric function - entire function of maximum type - entire function of mean type - entire function of potential type - entire function of zero type - entire rational function - essentially increasing function - essentially integrable function - essentially real function - essentially smooth function - everywhere differentiable function - everywhere smooth function - expansible function - explicitly definable function - exponentially convex function - exponentially decreasing function - exponentially increasing function - exponentially multiplicative function - exponentially vanishing function - finitely mean valent function - finitely measurable function - function of appropriate behavior - function of bounded characteristic - function of bounded type - function of bounded variation - function of complex variable - function of exponential type - function of finite genus - function of finite variation - function of fractional order - function of infinite type - function of integral order - function of maximal type - function of minimal type - function of mixed variables - function of normal type - function of number theory - function of one variable - function of rapid descent - function of rapid growth - function of real variable - general universal function - geometric carrier function - implicitly definable function - incomplete dibeta function - incomplete gamma function - incomplete tribeta function - incompletely defined function - inductively defined function - inductively integrable function - infinitely divisible function - infinitely many-valued function - integral logarithmic function - inverse trigonometric function - inverted beta function - iterative function - joint correlation function - joint density function - linearly separable function - locally bounded function - locally constant function - locally holomorphic function - locally homogeneous function - locally integrable function - locally negligible function - locally regular function - locally summable function - logarithmic generating function - logarithmic integral function - logarithmically infinite function - logarithmically plurisubharmonic function - logarithmically subharmonic function - lower semicontinuous function - monotone non-decreasing function - monotone non-increasing function - multiply periodic function - multiply recursive function - negative definite function - negative infinite function - nontangentially bounded function - normalized function - normed function - nowhere continuous function - nowhere differentiable function - nowhere monotonic function - n-times differentiable function - n-tuply periodic function - numeralwise expressible function - numeralwise representable function - numerical function - numerically valued function - oblate spheroidal function - operating characteristic function - optimal policy function - parametrically definable function - partially symmetric function - piecewise constant function - piecewise continuously differentiable function - piecewise linear function - piecewise monotonic function - piecewise polynomial function - piecewise quadratic function - piecewise regular function - piecewise smooth function - pointwise approximated function - positive homogeneous function - positive infinite function - positive monotone function - positive monotonic function - positive semidefinite function - potentially calculable function - potentially recursive function - power series function - probability generating function - quadratically summable function - rapidly damped function - rapidly decreasing function - rapidly oscillatory function - recursively continuous function - recursively convergent function - recursively defined function - recursively differentiable function - recursively divergent function - recursively extensible function - relative distribution function - relative frequency function - representing function - reproducing kernel function - residual function - residue function - scalarwise integrable function - scalarwise measurable function - sectionally smooth function - simply periodic function - singly recursive function - slowly increasing function - slowly oscillating function - slowly varying function - smoothly varying function - solid spherical harmonic function - solid zonal harmonic function - steadily increasing function - stopped random function - strictly convex function - strictly decreasing function - strictly increasing function - strictly integrable function - strictly monotone function - strongly differentiable function - strongly holomorphic function - strongly integrable function - strongly measurable function - strongly plurisubharmonic function - totally additive function - totally continuous function - totally measurable function - totally multiplicative function - totally positive function - triangular function - uniformly best decision function - uniformly bounded function - uniformly definable function - uniformly differentiable function - uniformly homotopic function - uniformly integrable function - uniformly limited function - uniformly measurable function - uniformly smooth function - unit step function - unitary divisor function - upper measurable function - upper semicontinuous function - weakly analytic function - weakly continuous function - weakly differentiable function - weakly holomorphic function - weakly measurable function - weakly singular function - weighted random functiondomain of a function — область определения функции, область изменения независимой переменной
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6 детерминированная функция
determinate function мат.Русско-английский научно-технический словарь Масловского > детерминированная функция
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7 детерминированная функция
1) Mathematics: determinate function2) Makarov: deterministic functionУниверсальный русско-английский словарь > детерминированная функция
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8 детерминированная функция
deterministic function, determinate functionРусско-английский физический словарь > детерминированная функция
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9 детерминированная функция
Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > детерминированная функция
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10 область
1) area
2) domain
3) <math.> field
4) portion
5) range
6) region
7) space
8) system
9) universe
10) zone
– жордановая область
– запрещенная область
– кольцевая область
– кратно-кругообразная область
– мажорантная область
– обедненная область
– область базы
– область взаимодействия
– область встречи
– область Д-ионосферы
– область действия
– область дрейфа
– область Е ионосферы
– область зависимости
– область запрещенная
– область затвора
– область защиты
– область значений
– область изменений
– область импримитивности
– область интегрирования
– область истока
– область коллектора
– область коэффициентов
– область минимума
– область непрозрачности
– область непропускания
– область определения
– область определенности
– область отсечки
– область перехода
– область плотности
– область полутени
– область прикатодная
– область применения
– область прозрачности
– область пропорциональности
– область рассуждения
– область рациональности
– область синхронизации
– область спектра
– область старения
– область сходимости
– область транзитивности
– область угла
– область удержания
– область целостности
– область эмиттера
– ограниченная область
– пограничная область
– покрывающая область
– полосообразная область
– пропущенная область
– радиальная область
– склеенная область
– цилиндрическая область
– частотная область
видимая область спектра — visible spectrum
запальная область реактора — reactor seed region
инфракрасная область спектра — infra-red spectrum
как угодно малая область — arbitrarily small domain
область белых цветов — <opt.> achromatic focus
область возникновения метеоров — < radio> m-region
область высоких энергий — high-energy region
область главных идеалов — principal ideal domain
область допустимого режима — feasible area
область дырочной проводимости — p-region
область избытка электронов — <phys.> n-region
область изменения независимой переменной — domain of a function
область инфракрасная дальняя — <opt.> far infrared
область лавинного пробоя — avalanche region
область науки или искусства — faculty
область недостатка электронов — <phys.> p-region
область непринятия гипотезы — rejection region
область непринятия решения — <math.> doubtful region, indeterminate zone
область объемного заряда — space-charge region
область ограниченная разрезами — slit region
область определения функции — domain of a function
область плохого приема — poor reception area
область пониженного давления — depression
область принятия гипотезы — acceptance region
область принятия решения — determinate zone
область пространственного заряда — <electr.> space charge region
область прямой проводимости — forward conduction region
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11 obligation
ˌɔblɪˈɡeɪʃən сущ.
1) а) гарантия, обязательство to undertake obligations, assume obligations ≈ принимать обязательства Syn: duty, function, office, responsibility Ant: right б) обязанность;
долг to feel an obligation ≈ чувствовать себя обязанным to discharge, fulfill, meet an obligation ≈ выполнять, исполнять долг legal obligation ≈ правовая обязанность moral obligation ≈ моральный долг social obligation ≈ общественный долг family obligations ≈ семейные обязанности obligation to one's parents ≈ долг перед родителями We have an obligation to help them. ≈ Мы обязаны им помогать.
2) принудительная сила, обязательность( закона, договора и т. п.) military obligation ≈ воинская повинность
3) а) оказанная любезность б) чувство признательности You have no right to put her under an obligation. ≈ У тебя нет никакого права заставить ее испытывать признательность. обязанность;
долг;
обязательство - * of conscience долг совести - under (an) * to smb. обязанный кому-л., в долгу перед кем-л. - I feel under * to you for all you've done я вам очень обязан за все, что вы сделали - it was his * to return her favour он чувствовал себя обязанным ответить ей услугой за услугу - he likes to repay all *s он не любит оставаться в долгу обязательство;
соглашение;
контракт - contractual *s договорные обязательства - under (an) * обязанный, связанный (договором) - to assume *s брать на себя обязательства - to lay smb. under an *, to put an * on smb. связать кого-л. обязательством - to fulfil one's *s выполнять (все) свои обязательства (юридическое) долговое обязательство;
долговая расписка;
(долговая) гарантия - to discharge an * уплатить по обязательству - to cancel an * oтменять обязательсво облигация обязательность, принудительная сила( закона, договора) - of * обязательный благодарность;
чувство благодарности ли признательности alimentary ~ алиментные обязательства ancillary ~ акцессорное обязательство, вытекающее из основного иска ancillary ~ дополнительное обязательство ~ обязанность;
долг;
to be under an obligation( to smb.) быть в долгу( перед кем-л.) binding ~ связывающее обязательство collateralized mortgage ~ (CMO) облигация, обеспеченная пулом ипотек contingent ~ условная обязанность contingent ~ условное обязательство contract an ~ принимать на себя обязательство contractual ~ договорное обязательство debt servicing ~ обязательство по обслуживанию долга determinate ~ определенное обязательство discharge an ~ выполнять обязательство double currency ~ обязательство в двойной валюте farming ~ фермерское обязательство fictitious ~ фиктивное обязательство financial ~ финансовое обязательство fulfil an ~ выполнять обязательство generic ~ общее обязательство government ~ государственное обязательство imperfect ~ обязательство, не имеющее исковой силы incomplete ~ неполное обязательство incur an ~ нести обязанность incur an ~ принимать на себя обязательство indemnity ~ обязательство по возмещению вреда, ущерба, убытков indispensable ~ необходимое обязательство instalment ~ обязательство платить в рассрочку landowner's ~ обязательства землевладельца leasing ~ обязательства по аренде legal ~ правовое обязательство long-term ~ долгосрочное обязательство maintenance ~ обязательство по содержанию (к.-л., чего-либо) maintenance ~ обязательство по техническому обслуживанию maintenance ~ обязательство по уплате алиментов maintenance ~ обязательство предоставлять средства к существованию moral ~ моральное обязательство moral ~ натуральное обязательство nondisclosure ~ обязательство о неразглашении obligation долг ~ долговая расписка ~ долговое обязательство ~ облигация ~ обязанность ~ обязанность;
долг;
to be under an obligation (to smb.) быть в долгу (перед кем-л.) ~ обязательная сила ~ обязательность ~ обязательство ~ обязательство;
to repay an obligation отплатить тем же (напр., гостеприимством за гостеприимство и т. п.) ~ принудительная сила, обязательность (закона, договора и т. п.) ;
of obligation обязательный ~ чувство признательности ~ in articles of association обязательство по уставу ассоциации ~ in kind обязательство натурой ~ in law юридическое обязательство ~ of notification обязательство направлять уведомление ~ of performance обязательство выполнения ~ to accept contract обязательство одобрить контракт ~ to contribute обязательство делать взносы ~ to declare обязанность заполнять декларацию ~ to deliver обязательство обеспечить поставку ~ to disclose обязательство давать информацию ~ to disclose обязательство сообщать сведения ~ to entertain обязанность принимать к рассмотрению ~ to give notice of dishonour обязательство уведомлять об отказе от акцепта векселя ~ to give notice of dishonour обязательство уведомлять об отказе от оплаты векселя ~ to give way обязанность уступать дорогу ~ to indemnify обязательство возмещать убытки ~ to inform or explain обязательство информировать или разъяснять ~ to insure обязательство застраховаться ~ to intervene обязательство вмешиваться ~ to live together обязательство совместного проживания ~ to notify обязательство направлять уведомления ~ to offer обязательство предлагать цену ~ to pay обязанность производить платежи ~ to pay additional contribution обязанность делать дополнительный страховой взнос ~ to provide information обязательство предоставлять информацию ~ to register обязательство зарегистрироваться ~ to repatriate assets обязательство вернуть активы ~ to repatriate assets обязательство вернуть имущество ~ to report обязательство представлять отчетность ~ to sell обязательство вести продажу ~ to submit reports обязательство предоставлять отчетность ~ to support обязательство оказывать материальную помощь ~ принудительная сила, обязательность (закона, договора и т. п.) ;
of obligation обязательный onerous ~ обременительное обязательство parental ~ родительское обязательство payment ~ платежное обязательство pecuniary ~ финансовое обязательство pension ~ обязательство по пенсионному обеспечению performance ~ обязательство исполнения primary ~ основное обязательство prior mortgage ~ обязательство по предшествующей закладной professional ~ профессиональное обязательство real ~ вещное обременение repatriation ~ обязательство о репатриации денежных средств repatriation ~ обязательство о репатриации капитала ~ обязательство;
to repay an obligation отплатить тем же (напр., гостеприимством за гостеприимство и т. п.) repayment ~ обязательство по выплате долга reporting ~ обязательство по отчетности reversion ~ обратный переход имущественных прав к первоначальному собственнику secondary ~ вторичное обязательство secrecy ~ обязательство соблюдать конфиденциальность secrecy ~ секретное обязательство similar ~ одинаковое обязательство taxation ~ обязательство по налогообложению underlying ~ преимущественное обязательство undertake an ~ брать на себя обязательство to undertake (или to assume) ~s принимать обязательства violate an ~ нарушать обязательства visa ~ обязательства, оговоренные визой without ~ без обязательстваБольшой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > obligation
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12 state
1) состояние
2) термодинамический
3) шт
4) режим
5) положение
6) структура
7) государство
8) заявлять
9) излагать
10) высказывать
11) гласить
12) констатировать
13) сформулировать
14) фиксировать
15) штат
16) государственный
17) фазовый
18) проставка
19) заявить
20) утверждать
21) утвердить
22) выражать
23) выразить
– amorphous state
– bound state
– change of state
– coherent-trapping state
– cut-off state
– decrepit state
– degenerated state
– determinate state
– disordered state
– disperse state
– doorway state
– energy of state
– equation of state
– equilibrium state
– ergodic state
– excited state
– extended state
– final state
– forbidden state
– frozen state
– function of state
– gaseous state
– high-Q state
– inaccessible state
– initial state
– intermediate state
– intruder state
– irreversible state
– latent state
– limiting state
– limp state
– molten state
– non-degenerate state
– non-equilibrium state
– nonexcited state
– off state
– on state
– ordered state
– perturb state
– physical state
– quantum state
– reversible state
– safe state
– singlet state
– solid state
– squeezed state
– stable state
– state flow
– state graph
– state hybridization
– state machine
– state of chaos
– state of charge
– state of discharge
– state of distribution
– state of matter
– state of weightlessness
– state problem
– state space
– state table
– state testing
– state transition
– state variable
– state vector
– stationary state
– steady state
– stressed state
– supercooled state
– supersaturated state
– target state
– transient state
– unoccupied state
– unstable state
– upper state
– valent state
– vaporous state
– vibrational state
– wait state
– zero state
Novosibirsk State University — университет государственный Новосибирский
reduction to single-domain state — <phys.> монодоменизация
state of aggregation of matter — агрегатное состояние вещества
state of plane deformation — плоское деформированное состояние
State Planning Commission — комиссия плановая Государственная
State System of Instruments — <engin.> система приборов Государственная
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13 ཡིད་
[yid]manas, mind, mental functioning, sentience, mental process, integrative mental capacity, categorical perception, ego act, conceptual and emotional elaboration, human constant, subjective frame of mind, function-event particularly concerned with conceptualization, (interprets data transmitted to its center by senses; 2 aspects: transcendent, determinate; example: gzugs mig mig-gi rnam-shes, chos yid yid-kyi rnam-shes), 1 of 28 astrological terms for harmony of influence in the destiny of a person, intellect, powers of perception and imagination, mental talents, sentiment, disposition -
14 state
1) состояние2) положение4) физ. энергетический уровень5) государство || государственный6) штат7) заявлять; утверждать8) излагать; констатировать9) фиксировать•- completely defined state - completely reachable state - state of being curved - state of plane stressreduction to a single-domain state — физ. монодоменизация
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15 system
1) система; комплекс2) совокупность•- absolutely consistent system - absolutely direct indecomposable system - absolutely free system - absolutely irreducible system - absolutely isolated system - allowable coordinate system - almost linear system - ample linear system - artificial feel system - automatic block system - automatic deicing system - binary relational system - binary-coded decimal system - block tooling system - Cartesian coordinate system - completely controllable system - completely ergodic system - completely hyperbolic system - completely identifiable system - completely integrable system - completely irreducible system - completely regular system - completely stable system - completely stratified system - complex number system - conical coordinate system - derivational formal system - differential equation system - differential selsyn system - digital counting system - digital transmission system - elliptic coordinate system - elliptic cylindrical coordinate system - externally inconsistent system - finite state system - finitely axiomatizable system - finitely presented system - fully characteristic quotient system - fundamental system of solutions - hydraulic lift system - integrated switching system - isomorphically embedded system - kernel normal system - linearly dependent system - linearly independent system - live hydraulic system - locking protection system - meteor-burst communication system - modular programming system - parabolic cylindrical coordinate system - permanent four-wheel drive system - pure independent system - radio telephone system - reactor protection system - real number system - receiver-amplifier crioelectric system - remote-cylinder hydraulic system - semantically consistent system - simply consistent system - simply incomplete system - simply ordered system - spherical coordinate system - strongly multiplicative system - structurally stable system - sufficiently general coordinate system - system of frequency curves - system of rational numbers - time multiplex system - time-division multiplex system - uniformly complete system - univalent system of notation - universal system of notation - weakly closed system - weighted number system -
16 place
1. n место, город, местечко; пунктLondon is a noisy place — Лондон — шумный город
2. n место, точка на поверхности; участок3. n обычное, привычное, отведённое место4. n сиденье, место5. n место в книге; страница; отрывокtake the place of — замещать; заменять; занять место
the place whither they went — место, куда они пошли
6. n место, пространство7. n существенное место; важная роль8. n подходящий момент, ситуация9. n в названиях10. n площадь11. n небольшая улица, тупик12. n дом, жилищеall over the place — везде, по всему дому
a regular barrack of a place — не дом, а казарма
13. n имение, загородный дом14. n уст. укрепление15. n должность, место, служба16. n высокая государственная должность; ответственная должность, высокий пост17. n членство, участие18. n тк. дело, право, обязанность19. n положение, статус20. n спорт. второе или третье призовое место21. n спорт. амер. второе местозабой, выработка
22. n спорт. мат. разряд23. n спорт. астр. местонахождениеto take place — случаться, иметь место
24. v ставить, помещать; размещатьto place on orbit — выводить на орбиту; размещать на орбите
25. v помещать, отдаватьplace business — помещать заказы; размещать заказы
26. v определять на должность; ставить на приходfeet together, place — ноги вместе ставь
27. v помещать, вкладывать деньги28. v делать, помещать заказthe French Government placed orders in England — французское правительство поместило заказы в Англии
place money on deposit — вносить деньги на депозит; помещать деньги на депозит
29. v продавать товары, акцииdifficult to place — плохо продаётся, плохо идёт
30. v возлагатьno confidence could be placed in any of the twelve judges — из двенадцати судей нельзя было верить ни одному
31. v определять местоположение или дату; соотноситьto try to place the spot where Caesar landed — пытаться определить то место, где высадился Цезарь
the manuscript is placed not later than the tenth century — установлено, что рукопись относится к десятому веку, не позже
I know his face but I cannot place him — мне знакомо его лицо, но я не могу вспомнить, где я его видел
fire place — камин; топка камина или печи
32. v считать, причислять; оценивать33. v спорт. определять занятые места в соревнованииtake place — случаться; происходить; иметь место
34. v спорт. присудить второе или третье призовое местоlanding place — место высадки, пристань
out of place — не на месте; неуместный
35. v амер. спорт. присудить второе место36. v занять местоhe campaigned for 10 weeks and placed fifth — он проводил предвыборную кампанию десять недель и вышел на пятое место
37. v s38. v занимать определённое положение39. v находиться в определённом положении40. v амер. разг. повысить голосСинонимический ряд:1. area (noun) area; locality; vicinity2. duty (noun) charge; duty; employment; function; responsibility3. home (noun) abode; domicile; dwelling; habitation; home; house; lodgings; residence4. job (noun) appointment; berth; billet; connection; job; office; post; slot5. location (noun) capacity; character; footing; locale; location; locus; plot; point; quality; rank; site; space; spot; standing; state; station; status; stead; where6. occasion (noun) cause; circumstances; ground; occasion; opportunity; position; reason; situation7. region (noun) field; province; region; section; sector; territory8. appoint (verb) appoint; hire; induct9. estimate (verb) approximate; call; estimate; judge; reckon10. fix (verb) affix; assign; blame; fasten; fix; pin on; saddle11. identify (verb) determinate; diagnose; diagnosticate; distinguish; finger; identify; pinpoint; recognise; recognize; spot12. put (verb) arrange; deposit; dispose; establish; lay; locate; order; position; put; set; settle; situate; stick13. rate (verb) categorise; class; classify; grade; group; pigeon-hole; rank; rate14. run (verb) come in; finish; runАнтонимический ряд:discompose; dislodge; dismiss; displace; disturb; eject; empty; eradicate; forget; jumble; misplace; remove -
17 Psychology
We come therefore now to that knowledge whereunto the ancient oracle directeth us, which is the knowledge of ourselves; which deserveth the more accurate handling, by how much it toucheth us more nearly. This knowledge, as it is the end and term of natural philosophy in the intention of man, so notwithstanding it is but a portion of natural philosophy in the continent of nature.... [W]e proceed to human philosophy or Humanity, which hath two parts: the one considereth man segregate, or distributively; the other congregate, or in society. So as Human philosophy is either Simple and Particular, or Conjugate and Civil. Humanity Particular consisteth of the same parts whereof man consisteth; that is, of knowledges which respect the Body, and of knowledges that respect the Mind... how the one discloseth the other and how the one worketh upon the other... [:] the one is honored with the inquiry of Aristotle, and the other of Hippocrates. (Bacon, 1878, pp. 236-237)The claims of Psychology to rank as a distinct science are... not smaller but greater than those of any other science. If its phenomena are contemplated objectively, merely as nervo-muscular adjustments by which the higher organisms from moment to moment adapt their actions to environing co-existences and sequences, its degree of specialty, even then, entitles it to a separate place. The moment the element of feeling, or consciousness, is used to interpret nervo-muscular adjustments as thus exhibited in the living beings around, objective Psychology acquires an additional, and quite exceptional, distinction. (Spencer, 1896, p. 141)Kant once declared that psychology was incapable of ever raising itself to the rank of an exact natural science. The reasons that he gives... have often been repeated in later times. In the first place, Kant says, psychology cannot become an exact science because mathematics is inapplicable to the phenomena of the internal sense; the pure internal perception, in which mental phenomena must be constructed,-time,-has but one dimension. In the second place, however, it cannot even become an experimental science, because in it the manifold of internal observation cannot be arbitrarily varied,-still less, another thinking subject be submitted to one's experiments, comformably to the end in view; moreover, the very fact of observation means alteration of the observed object. (Wundt, 1904, p. 6)It is [Gustav] Fechner's service to have found and followed the true way; to have shown us how a "mathematical psychology" may, within certain limits, be realized in practice.... He was the first to show how Herbart's idea of an "exact psychology" might be turned to practical account. (Wundt, 1904, pp. 6-7)"Mind," "intellect," "reason," "understanding," etc. are concepts... that existed before the advent of any scientific psychology. The fact that the naive consciousness always and everywhere points to internal experience as a special source of knowledge, may, therefore, be accepted for the moment as sufficient testimony to the rights of psychology as science.... "Mind," will accordingly be the subject, to which we attribute all the separate facts of internal observation as predicates. The subject itself is determined p. 17) wholly and exclusively by its predicates. (Wundt, 1904,The study of animal psychology may be approached from two different points of view. We may set out from the notion of a kind of comparative physiology of mind, a universal history of the development of mental life in the organic world. Or we may make human psychology the principal object of investigation. Then, the expressions of mental life in animals will be taken into account only so far as they throw light upon the evolution of consciousness in man.... Human psychology... may confine itself altogether to man, and generally has done so to far too great an extent. There are plenty of psychological text-books from which you would hardly gather that there was any other conscious life than the human. (Wundt, 1907, pp. 340-341)The Behaviorist began his own formulation of the problem of psychology by sweeping aside all medieval conceptions. He dropped from his scientific vocabulary all subjective terms such as sensation, perception, image, desire, purpose, and even thinking and emotion as they were subjectively defined. (Watson, 1930, pp. 5-6)According to the medieval classification of the sciences, psychology is merely a chapter of special physics, although the most important chapter; for man is a microcosm; he is the central figure of the universe. (deWulf, 1956, p. 125)At the beginning of this century the prevailing thesis in psychology was Associationism.... Behavior proceeded by the stream of associations: each association produced its successors, and acquired new attachments with the sensations arriving from the environment.In the first decade of the century a reaction developed to this doctrine through the work of the Wurzburg school. Rejecting the notion of a completely self-determining stream of associations, it introduced the task ( Aufgabe) as a necessary factor in describing the process of thinking. The task gave direction to thought. A noteworthy innovation of the Wurzburg school was the use of systematic introspection to shed light on the thinking process and the contents of consciousness. The result was a blend of mechanics and phenomenalism, which gave rise in turn to two divergent antitheses, Behaviorism and the Gestalt movement. The behavioristic reaction insisted that introspection was a highly unstable, subjective procedure.... Behaviorism reformulated the task of psychology as one of explaining the response of organisms as a function of the stimuli impinging upon them and measuring both objectively. However, Behaviorism accepted, and indeed reinforced, the mechanistic assumption that the connections between stimulus and response were formed and maintained as simple, determinate functions of the environment.The Gestalt reaction took an opposite turn. It rejected the mechanistic nature of the associationist doctrine but maintained the value of phenomenal observation. In many ways it continued the Wurzburg school's insistence that thinking was more than association-thinking has direction given to it by the task or by the set of the subject. Gestalt psychology elaborated this doctrine in genuinely new ways in terms of holistic principles of organization.Today psychology lives in a state of relatively stable tension between the poles of Behaviorism and Gestalt psychology.... (Newell & Simon, 1963, pp. 279-280)As I examine the fate of our oppositions, looking at those already in existence as guide to how they fare and shape the course of science, it seems to me that clarity is never achieved. Matters simply become muddier and muddier as we go down through time. Thus, far from providing the rungs of a ladder by which psychology gradually climbs to clarity, this form of conceptual structure leads rather to an ever increasing pile of issues, which we weary of or become diverted from, but never really settle. (Newell, 1973b, pp. 288-289)The subject matter of psychology is as old as reflection. Its broad practical aims are as dated as human societies. Human beings, in any period, have not been indifferent to the validity of their knowledge, unconcerned with the causes of their behavior or that of their prey and predators. Our distant ancestors, no less than we, wrestled with the problems of social organization, child rearing, competition, authority, individual differences, personal safety. Solving these problems required insights-no matter how untutored-into the psychological dimensions of life. Thus, if we are to follow the convention of treating psychology as a young discipline, we must have in mind something other than its subject matter. We must mean that it is young in the sense that physics was young at the time of Archimedes or in the sense that geometry was "founded" by Euclid and "fathered" by Thales. Sailing vessels were launched long before Archimedes discovered the laws of bouyancy [ sic], and pillars of identical circumference were constructed before anyone knew that C IID. We do not consider the ship builders and stone cutters of antiquity physicists and geometers. Nor were the ancient cave dwellers psychologists merely because they rewarded the good conduct of their children. The archives of folk wisdom contain a remarkable collection of achievements, but craft-no matter how perfected-is not science, nor is a litany of successful accidents a discipline. If psychology is young, it is young as a scientific discipline but it is far from clear that psychology has attained this status. (Robinson, 1986, p. 12)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Psychology
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