Qing Dynasty

Qing Dynasty (Chinese bhasa: 清朝; pinyin: Qīng cháo) 1644 AD se 1912 AD talak China ke ek dynasty rahaa. Ii dynasty Manchu log suruu kare rahin aur yahii kaaran se iske pahile waala naam Manchu Dynasty rahaa.

Naam

Hong Taiji , Great Qing dynasty ke 1636 me proclaim karis rahaa.^[1] Chinese character Qīng (清; 'clear', 'pure') ke matlab ke dher explanation hae. Ek theory Ming character: the character Míng (明; 'bright') se contrast kare hae, aur ii aagi se taaluk rakkhe haeis Chinese zodiacal system me, jab Qīng (清) water se associated hae, jon Qing ke jiit ke dekhae hae, jisme aagi paani ke uppar vijay rahaa. Ii naam ke Buddhist implications hoe sake hae, jisme ii perspicacity aur enlightenment hae, aur iske alaawa bodhisattva Manjusri se connection rahaa.^[2] Pahile ke Europe ke lekhak "Tartar" sabd ke bina soche-samjhe sab Northern Eurasia ke log ke khaatir kaam me laawat rahin lekin 17th century me Catholic missionary lekh me "Tartar" ke Manchus aur "Tartary" ke khaatir kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa, uu jagha ke khaatir jispe uulog raaj karat rahin — jaise Manchuria aur bagal ke Inner Asia ke hissa,^[3]^[4] jispe Qing raaj karat rahin Ming–Qing transition se pahile.

China ke khaas ilaaka pe kabjaa kare ke baad, Manchus aapan raajya ke "China" bolat rahin, China standard English translation Chinese me aur Template:Tlit Manchu me, ke rahaa. Qing ke emperor log Qing state ke ilaaka (jisme aur jagha rahaa, abhi ke Northeast China, Xinjiang, Mongolia, aur Tibet) ke "China" maanat rahin, duuno Chinese aur Manchu bhasa me, jisme China ke ek multi-ethnic state maana jaawat rahaa, aur reject karat rahaa ii idea ki khaali Han ilaaka "China" ke hissa rahaa. Sarkar "China" aur "Qing" ke adal-badal ke kaam me laaawat rahaa aapan official documents me,^[5] jisme Chinese-bhasa versions treaties aur dunia ke map bhi rahaa. ^[6] Sabd 'Chinese log' (中國人; Zhōngguórén me; Manchu: sab Han log, Manchu, aur Mongols jon Qing Empire ke subject rahin.^[7] Jab Qing conquered Dzungaria in 1759, tab uu Manchu-bhasa memorial me proclaim karis rahaa ki nawaa ilaaka ab "China" me hae.^[8] Qing sarkar ii ideology ke failais ki "outer" non-Han log—jaise dher abaadi Mongolian ke, aur Tibetans bhi—ke ek saathe karnaa "inner" Han Chinese ke saathe "ek palwaar" me, ektaa rahaa Qing state me. Phraseology jaise Zhōngwài yījiā (中外一家) aur nèiwài yījiā (內外一家)—duuno anuwaad how hae 'ghare aur pardes ek palwaar ke rakam'—ke kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa dekhae khaatir idea of Qing-mediated trans-cultural ektaa.^[8]

Itihaas

Formation

Qing dynasty ke Han Chinese , jiske des ke puuraa abaadi me bahumati rahaa, nai suruu kare rahin lekin Manchus, ek sedentary kisan log jon Jurchens, ek Tungusic log jon uu ilaaka me rahat rahin jisme abhi e Chinese provinces Jilin aur Heilongjiang hae, se descended rahin.^[9]

Nurhaci

Manchu state ke suruu waala style ke Nurhaci, jon ek chhotaa Jurchen tribe – Aisin-Gioro – Jianzhou me, early 17th century ke chief rahaa, suruu karis rahaa. Nurhaci saait Han household in me aapan jawani me rahaa hoi, aur Chinese aur Mongolian bhasa me achchhaa baat karat rahaa aur Chinese novels Romance of the Three Kingdoms aur Water Margin ke parrhis rahaa.^[10]^[11] Ming emperors ke niche, uu apne ke officially ek guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of the Ming dynasty maanat rahaa.^[12] Nurhaci ek intertribal larrai ke 1582 me suruu karis rahaa jon barr ke ek campaign to unify the nearby tribes hoe gais rahaa. Uu suruu karis rahaa organise kare Eight Banners military system jisme rahaa Manchu, Han, aur Mongol log. 1616 talak, uu Jianzhou ke etna ek saathe kar liis rahaa, jisse uu apne ke Khan of the Later Jin dynasty in reference to the previous Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty proclaim karis rahaa.^[13]

Dui saal baad, Nurhaci announced karis "Seven Grievances" aur khule-aam renounce karis rahaa sovereignty of Ming overlordship Jurchen tribes ke unification ke complete kare ke khaatir jon abhi talak Ming emperor ke saathe rahin. Kuchh larrai me haar ke baad, uu aapan capital ke Hetu Ala se hatae ke successively bigger captured Ming cities Liaodong me: pahile Liaoyang 1621 me, fir Mukden (Shenyang) 1625 me, kar liis rahaa.^[13] Iske alaawa, Khorchin larrai me achchhaa ally rahin, Jurchens ke aapan as their expertise as cavalry archers dewat rahin. ii nawaa alliance ke guarantee kare ke khaatir, Nurhaci suruu karis rahaa ek policy jisme inter-marriages Jurchen aur Khorchin nobilities ke biich me howat rahaa, aur jon iske nai maangat rahaa ke military action ke saaman kare ke parrat rahaa. Ii ek typical example hae Nurhaci ke initiatives ke jon baad me official Qing government policy ban gais rahaa. Qing jamaanake jaada hissa me, Mongols military assistance Manchus ke de rahin.^[14]

Hong Taiji

Nurhaci 1626 me mar gais rahaa, aur uske aathwa larrka, Hong Taiji use succeed karis rahaa. Jab Hong Taiji ek experienced neta rahaa aur commander of two Banners rahaa, Jurchens 1627 ke larrai me haar gay rahin, jiske kaaran kuchh hissa talak Ming ke nawaa lewa gais Portuguese cannons rahaa. Ii technological aur numerical disparity ke address kare ke khaatir, Hong Taiji, 1634 me, aapan artillery corps banais rahaa, jon apne se cannons ke banae rahin European design pe, ek defector Chinese metallurgist ke nadat se. Ek khaas ghatna Hong Taiji ke reign ke rahaa, official adoption naam "Manchu" ke, united Jurchen log ke, November 1635 me. 1635 me, Manchu ke Mongol allies ke puura incorporate kar lewa gais rahaa ek alag Banner hierarchy, direct Manchu command ke niche. April 1636 me, Mongol nobility, Inner Mongolia ke, Manchu nobility aur Han mandarin recommended karin ki Hong, Baad ke Jin ke khan ke ruup me, Great Qing ke emporer hoe ke chaahi.^[15]^[16] Jab uske imperial seal of the Yuan dynasty ke dewa gais rahaa, aakhari Khagan of the Mongols ke harae ke baad, Hong Taiji aapan state ke naam ke "Great Jin" se badal ke "Great Qing" kar diis rahaa aur aapan position ke Khan se uppar kar ke Emperor kar diis rahaa, jon ii suggest kare hae ki uske imperial ambitions unifying the Manchu territories se aur duur rahaa. Hong Taiji iske baad suruu karis rahaa invade Korea fir se, 1636 me.

Yahii time, Hong Taiji ek rudimentary bureaucratic system ke suruu karis rahaa, jon Ming model pe based rahaa.Uu suruu karis rahaa six boards nai to executive level ministries, 1631 me finance, personnel, rites, military, punishments, aur public works ke dekhe ke khaatir. Lekin, ii administrative organs suruu me bahut kaamil nai rahaa, aur khaali das saal baad, jab uu aapan ke khalaas kare waala rahaa jab ii system achchhaa se chale lagaa rahaa.^[17]

References

↑ Yamamuro, Shin'ichi (2006). Manchuria Under Japanese Domination. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 246. ISBN 978-0812239126. https://archive.org/details/manchuriaunderja0000yama.
↑ Crossley (1997), pp. 212–213.
↑ Dong, Shaoxin (2020). "The Tartars in European Missionary Writings of the Seventeenth Century". In Weststeijn, Thijs. Foreign Devils and Philosophers Cultural Encounters between the Chinese, the Dutch, and Other Europeans, 1590–1800. Leiden: Brill. pp. 82–83. ISBN 978-9004418929. https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004418929/BP000004.xml. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
↑ Woolley, Nathan (2016), Celestial Empire: Life in China 1644–1911, National Library of Australia, p. 107, ISBN 9780642278760
↑ Zhao (2006), pp. 4, 7–10, 12–14 and 24 n. 4.
↑ Bilik, Naran (2007). "Names Have Memories: History, Semantic Identity and Conflict in Mongolian and Chinese Language Use". Inner Asia 9 (1): 34. doi:10.1163/146481707793646629.
↑ Zhao (2006), pp. 4, 7–10, 12–14.
1 2 Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philippe; Millward, James A. (2004). [[[:Template:Google books]] New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde]. Routledge. ISBN 978-1134362226. Template:Google books.
↑ Ebrey (2010), p. 220.
↑ Swope, Kenneth M. (2014). The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44 (Illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 16. ISBN 978-1134462094. https://books.google.com/books?id=WRaoAgAAQBAJ&q=three+kingdoms+nurhaci+romance&pg=PA16.
↑ Mair, Victor H.; Chen, Sanping; Wood, Frances (2013). Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization (Illustrated ed.). Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500771471. https://books.google.com/books?id=agI7CwAAQBAJ&q=three+kingdoms+nurhaci+romance&pg=PT159.
↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Peterson".
1 2 Ebrey (2010), pp. 220–224.
↑ Bernard Hung-Kay Luk, Amir Harrak-Contacts between cultures, Vol. 4, p. 25
↑ Rawski (1991), p. 177.
↑ Tumen jalafun jecen akū: Manchu studies in honour of Giovanni Stary By Giovanni Stary, Alessandra Pozzi, Juha Antero Janhunen, Michael Weiers
↑ Li (2002), pp. 60–62.

[1] Yamamuro, Shin'ichi (2006). Manchuria Under Japanese Domination. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 246. ISBN 978-0812239126. https://archive.org/details/manchuriaunderja0000yama.

[FOOTNOTECrossley1997212–213-2] Crossley (1997), pp. 212–213.

[3] Dong, Shaoxin (2020). "The Tartars in European Missionary Writings of the Seventeenth Century". In Weststeijn, Thijs. Foreign Devils and Philosophers Cultural Encounters between the Chinese, the Dutch, and Other Europeans, 1590–1800. Leiden: Brill. pp. 82–83. ISBN 978-9004418929. https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004418929/BP000004.xml. Retrieved 14 March 2021.

[4] Woolley, Nathan (2016), Celestial Empire: Life in China 1644–1911, National Library of Australia, p. 107, ISBN 9780642278760

[FOOTNOTEZhao20064,_7–10,_12–14_and_24_n._4-5] Zhao (2006), pp. 4, 7–10, 12–14 and 24 n. 4.

[6] Bilik, Naran (2007). "Names Have Memories: History, Semantic Identity and Conflict in Mongolian and Chinese Language Use". Inner Asia 9 (1): 34. doi:10.1163/146481707793646629.

[FOOTNOTEZhao20064,_7–10,_12–14-7] Zhao (2006), pp. 4, 7–10, 12–14.

[Dunnell2004-8] 1 2 Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philippe; Millward, James A. (2004). [[[:Template:Google books]] New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde]. Routledge. ISBN 978-1134362226. Template:Google books.

[FOOTNOTEEbrey2010220-9] Ebrey (2010), p. 220.

[10] Swope, Kenneth M. (2014). The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44 (Illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 16. ISBN 978-1134462094. https://books.google.com/books?id=WRaoAgAAQBAJ&q=three+kingdoms+nurhaci+romance&pg=PA16.

[11] Mair, Victor H.; Chen, Sanping; Wood, Frances (2013). Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization (Illustrated ed.). Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500771471. https://books.google.com/books?id=agI7CwAAQBAJ&q=three+kingdoms+nurhaci+romance&pg=PT159.

[Peterson-12] Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Peterson".

[FOOTNOTEEbrey2010220–224-13] 1 2 Ebrey (2010), pp. 220–224.

[14] Bernard Hung-Kay Luk, Amir Harrak-Contacts between cultures, Vol. 4, p. 25

[FOOTNOTERawski1991[https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA177_177]-15] Rawski (1991), p. 177.

[16] Tumen jalafun jecen akū: Manchu studies in honour of Giovanni Stary By Giovanni Stary, Alessandra Pozzi, Juha Antero Janhunen, Michael Weiers

[FOOTNOTELi200260–62-17] Li (2002), pp. 60–62.

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