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Ilmi

Gyara hanyoyin mahaɗar
Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
ilmi
academic discipline (en) Fassara da Wissenschaft (mul) Fassara
Bayanai
Bangare naSTEM (mul) Fassara
Described at URL (en) Fassaraladbible.com…
Has characteristic (en) Fassarascientific evidence (en) Fassara, science award (en) Fassara da branch of science (en) Fassara
Tarihin maudu'itarihin kimiyya
Gudanarwanscientist (en) Fassara da scientist trainee (en) Fassara
Uses (en) Fassarascientific method (en) Fassara, scientific term (en) Fassara da scientific terminology (en) Fassara
WordLift URL (en) Fassarahttp://data.thenextweb.com/tnw/entity/science
Mastodon instance URL (en) Fassarahttps://fediscience.org, https://mstdn.science da https://scicomm.xyz

Kimiyya ta zamani yawanci ta kasu kashi biyu: kimiyyar halitta, wacce ke nazarin duniyar zahiri, da kimiyyar zamantakewa, wacce ke karatun mutane da al'ummomi. Duk da yake ana kiransu kimiyyar al'ada, dabaru, lissafi, da kimiyyar kwamfuta na ka'idoji galibi ana ɗaukar su a matsayin daban saboda sun dogara da tunani mai banƙyama maimakon Hanyar kimiyya a matsayin babbar hanyar su. A halin yanzu, kimiyyar da aka yi amfani da ita sune horo waɗanda ke amfani da ilimin kimiyya don dalilai masu amfani, kamar injiniya da magani.[1][2]

Tarihin kimiyya ya mamaye mafi yawan tarihin tarihi, tare da farkon wadanda suka riga sun kasance a kimiyyar zamani wanda ya fara zuwa zamanin Bronze a Misira da Mesopotamiya (c. 3000–1200 BCE ). Gudummawar da suka bayar ga lissafi, ilimin taurari, da magani sun shiga kuma sun tsara falsafar halitta ta Girka ta zamanin d ̄ a da kuma karatun zamani na zamani, inda aka yi ƙoƙari na samar da bayani game da abubuwan da suka faru a duniyar zahiri bisa ga abubuwan da suka haifar da halitta; an ci gaba da ci gaba, gami da gabatar da tsarin lambobi na Hindu-Arabic, a lokacin Golden Age na Indiya da Zamanin Zinariya na Musulunci.: 12 : 1–26 [3][4]: 163–192 

Farfadowa da daidaita ayyukan Girka da tambayoyin Musulunci a Yammacin Turai a lokacin Renaissance sun farfado da falsafar halitta, : 193-224, 225-253 wanda daga baya Juyin Juya Halin Kimiyya wanda ya fara a karni na 16 ya canza shi yayin da sababbin ra'ayoyi da abubuwan da aka gano suka tashi daga ra'ayoyin Girka da suka gabata.[4]: 357-368 : 274-322 Hanyar kimiyya nan da nan ta taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen samun ilimi, kuma a cikin Karni na 19, yawancin bangarorin kimiyya da kwararru sun fara samun tsari, tare da sauya "falsafar halitta" zuwa "kimiyya ta halitta".[5]

Sabon ilimi a kimiyya yana ci gaba ta hanyar bincike daga masana kimiyya waɗanda ke motsawa ta hanyar son sani game da duniya da sha'awar warware matsaloli. Binciken kimiyya na zamani sau da yawa yana da haɗin gwiwa sosai kuma ƙungiyoyi a cibiyoyin ilimi da bincike suna gudanar da shi akai-akai, hukumomin gwamnati, : 163-192 da kamfanoni. A lokaci guda, manyan ci gaba da yawa - musamman a cikin Kimiyya ta asali - sun fito ne daga masu bincike kuma an san su sosai ta hanyar manyan kyaututtuka na duniya kamar Kyautar Nobel. Sakamakon aiki na aikin kimiyya ya haifar da fitowar manufofin kimiyya waɗanda ke neman ba da fifiko ga ci gaban alhakin samfuran kasuwanci, kiwon lafiya, ababen more rayuwa na jama'a, kariya ta muhalli, da kuma damar tsaro.

Magana

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An yi amfani da kalmar kimiyya a cikin Turanci tun daga karni na 14 (Middle English) a cikin ma'anar "yanayin sani". An aro kalmar daga Harshen Anglo-Norman a matsayin ma'anar -kimiyya, wanda aka aro daga kalmar Latin scientia, ma'ana ', sani, fahimta', sunan da aka samo daga sciens ma'anar 'sanin', kanta mai aiki na yanzu na sciō 'sanin'.

Akwai ra'ayoyi da yawa game da asalin kalmar kimiyya. A cewar Michiel de Vaan, masanin harshe na Dutch kuma Indo-Turai, sciō na iya samun asalinsa a cikin harshen Proto-Italic kamar *skije- ko *skijo- ma'anar 'sanin', wanda zai iya samo asali daga Harshen Proto-Indo-Turai kamar *skh1-ie, **skh1-io ma'anar' yanka'. Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben ya ba da shawarar sciō wani tsari ne na baya na nescīre, ma'ana 'ba a sani ba, zama mara sani da', wanda zai iya samo asali daga Proto-Indo-Turai *sekH- a cikin Latin secāre, ko *skh2- daga *sʹheh2 (i) - ma'ana' yanka'.

A baya, kimiyya tana da alaƙa da "sani" ko "bincike", daidai da asalin Latin. Mutumin da ya gudanar da bincike na kimiyya ana kiransa "masanin falsafa na halitta" ko "mutumin kimiyya". A cikin 1834, William Whewell ya gabatar da kalmar masanin kimiyya a cikin bita na littafin Mary Somerville On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences, yana mai da shi ga "wani mutum mai basira" (watakila kansa). [6]

Tarihi

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Tarihin Farko

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Megaliths daga Nabta Playa, wanda jama'ar Neolithic suka gina don daidaita abubuwan lura da taurari da ke Aswan, Upper Egypt.
Clay tablet with markings, three columns for numbers and one for ordinals
Allon Plimpton 322 na Babiloniyawa ya rubuta Sau uku na Pythagoras, wanda aka rubuta c. 1800 BCE

Kimiyya ba ta da asali ɗaya. Maimakon haka, tunanin kimiyya ya fito ne a hankali a cikin dubban shekaru, [7] [8] yana ɗaukar siffofi daban-daban a duniya, kuma an san bayanai kaɗan game da abubuwan da suka faru na farko. Wataƙila Mata sun taka muhimmiyar rawa a kimiyyar prehistoric, kamar yadda al'adun addini suka yi. [9][10] Wasu malamai suna amfani da kalmar "protoscience" don lakafta ayyukan da suka gabata waɗanda suka yi kama da kimiyyar zamani a wasu amma ba duk siffofi ba; duk da haka, an kuma soki wannan lakabin a matsayin mai raina, ko kuma yana nuna halin yanzu, yana tunani game da waɗannan ayyukan kawai dangane da rukunin zamani.[11][12][13]

Shaidar kai tsaye ga hanyoyin kimiyya ta zama mafi haske tare da zuwan tsarin rubutu a cikin wayewar zamanin Tagulla na Tsohuwar Masar da Mesopotamiya ( c. 3000–1200 BCE ), ƙirƙirar rubuce-rubucen farko a tarihin kimiyya .  : 12–15  Duk da cewa kalmomin da ra'ayoyin "kimiyya" da "yanayi" ba su kasance cikin yanayin tunani a lokacin ba, tsoffin Masarawa da Mesopotamiya sun ba da gudummawa waɗanda daga baya suka sami matsayi a cikin kimiyyar Girka da ta zamanin da: lissafi, ilmin taurari, da magani. [14] [4] : 12 

Daga ƙarni na 3 Kafin haihuwar Annabi Isa (K.S), tsoffin Masarawa sun ƙirƙiro tsarin lambobi marasa matsayi, sun warware matsalolin aiki ta amfani da lissafi, [15] kuma suka ƙirƙiro kalanda . [16] Magungunan warkarwa da suka yi sun haɗa da magungunan ƙwayoyi da kuma abubuwan al'ajabi, kamar addu'o'i, addu'o'i, da al'adu.  : 9 Tsoffin 'yan Nubiya sun fara amfani da maganin rigakafi na farko kuma sun kafa tsarin ka'idojin lissafi wanda ya zama tushen hasken rana na farko. 'Yan Nubiya sun kuma yi amfani da hanyar trigonometric wacce ta yi daidai da takwarorinsu na Masar. [17] [18] [19]

Tsoffin mutanen Mesopotamiya sun yi amfani da ilimi game da halayen sinadarai daban-daban na halitta don ƙera tukwane, faience, gilashi, sabulu, ƙarfe, filastar lemun tsami, da kuma hana ruwa shiga. [20] Sun yi nazarin ilimin halittar dabbobi, ilmin halittar jiki, ɗabi'a, da ilmin taurari don dalilai na allahntaka . [21] Mutanen Mesopotamiya suna da sha'awar magani sosai, kuma farkon magungunan likita sun bayyana a Sumerian a lokacin Daular Uku ta Ur . [20] [22] Da alama sun yi nazarin fannonin kimiyya waɗanda ke da aikace-aikace na aiki ko na addini kuma ba su da sha'awar gamsar da sha'awa. [20]

Tsoffin tarihi

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Framed mosaic of philosophers gathering around and conversing
Mosaic na Kwalejin Plato, wanda aka yi tsakanin 100 BC da 79 CE, yana nuna masana falsafa da masana Girka da yawa.

A zamanin d ̄ a, babu ainihin kwatankwacin masanin kimiyya na zamani. Maimakon haka, masu ilimi sosai, yawanci manyan ɗalibai, kuma kusan maza na duniya suna yin bincike daban-daban game da yanayi a duk lokacin da za su iya samun lokaci.[23] Kafin kirkirar ko gano manufar phusis ko ra'ayi ta hanyar masana falsafa na pre-Socratic, ana amfani da kalmomi iri ɗaya don bayyana "hanyar" ta halitta inda shuka ke girma, da kuma "hanyar' wanda, alal misali, wata kabila tana bauta wa wani allah. Saboda wannan dalili, an yi iƙirarin cewa waɗannan maza ne masana falsafa na farko a cikin tsananin ma'ana kuma na farko da ya rarrabe "al'ada" da "taron".

Masana falsafa na Girka na farko na makarantar Milesian, wanda Thales na Miletus ya kafa daga baya kuma magajinsa Anaximander da Anaximenes suka ci gaba da shi, su ne farkon waɗanda suka yi ƙoƙarin bayyana abubuwan da suka faru na halitta ba tare da dogaro da abubuwan da suka shafi allahntaka ba . [24] Pythagoreans sun ƙirƙiro wata falsafar lissafi mai sarkakiya [25] :467–468kuma ya ba da gudummawa sosai ga ci gaban kimiyyar lissafi. [25] :465Masanin falsafar Girka Leucippus da ɗalibinsa Democritus ne suka ƙirƙiro ka'idar atoms . [26] Daga baya, Epicurus zai haɓaka cikakken ilimin halittar halitta bisa ga atomism, kuma zai rungumi "canon" (mai mulki, mizani) wanda ya kafa ka'idoji na zahiri ko ƙa'idodin gaskiyar kimiyya. Likitan Girka Hippocrates ya kafa al'adar kimiyyar likitanci mai tsari [27] kuma an san shi da " Uban Magunguna ".

Wani muhimmin abu da ya faru a tarihin kimiyyar falsafa ta farko shi ne misalin Socrates na amfani da falsafa wajen nazarin al'amuran ɗan adam, ciki har da yanayin ɗan adam, yanayin al'ummomin siyasa, da kuma ilimin ɗan adam da kansa. Hanyar Socratic kamar yadda tattaunawar Plato ta rubuta ita ce hanyar da ake amfani da ita wajen kawar da hasashe: ana samun ingantattun hasashe ta hanyar gano da kuma kawar da waɗanda ke haifar da sabani a hankali. Hanyar Socratic tana neman gaskiyar da aka saba da ita wadda ke tsara imani kuma tana bincika su don tabbatar da daidaito. [28] Socrates ya soki tsohuwar nau'in nazarin kimiyyar lissafi a matsayin abin zato kawai kuma ba shi da sukar kai . [29]

A ƙarni na 4 Kafin haihuwar Annabi Isa (K.S), Aristotle ya ƙirƙiri wani shiri mai tsari na falsafar sadarwa ta zamani . A ƙarni na 3 Kafin haihuwar Annabi Isa (K.S), masanin ilmin taurari na Girka Aristarchus na Samos shi ne farkon wanda ya gabatar da samfurin sararin samaniya mai tsayin daka, tare da Rana a tsakiya kuma dukkan duniyoyi suna kewaye da ita. An yi watsi da tsarin Aristarchus sosai saboda an yi imanin cewa ya karya dokokin kimiyyar lissafi, [30] yayin da aka karɓi samfurin Ptolemy's Almagest, wanda ya ƙunshi bayanin yanayin ƙasa na Tsarin Rana, ta hanyar farkon Renaissance. Mai ƙirƙira kuma masanin lissafi Archimedes na Syracuse ya ba da babbar gudummawa ga farkon lissafin lissafi . Pliny the Elder marubuci ne na Roma kuma masanin lissafi wanda ya rubuta babban littafin tarihin halitta .

Alamar matsayi don wakiltar lambobi wataƙila ta bayyana tsakanin ƙarni na 3 da 5 CE a kan hanyoyin kasuwanci na Indiya. Wannan tsarin lambobi ya sa ayyukan lissafi masu inganci su fi sauƙin samu kuma daga ƙarshe sun zama mizani ga lissafi a duk duniya.

Tsakiyar Zamani

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Picture of a peacock on very old paper
Shafin farko na Vienna Dioscurides yana nuna wani tsuntsu mai suna dawisu, wanda aka yi a ƙarni na 6.

Saboda rugujewar Daular Roma ta Yamma, ƙarni na 5 ya ga raguwar ilimi, tare da lalacewar ilimin fahimtar Girkawa na gargajiya game da duniya a Yammacin Turai. (p194)Masana kimiyyar Latin na lokacin kamar Isidore na Seville sun kiyaye mafi yawan ilimin da aka sani na da. Sabanin haka, saboda Daular Byzantine ta yi tsayayya da hare-haren mamaya, sun sami damar kiyayewa da inganta ilimin da suka gabata. [4] (p159)John Philoponus, wani malamin Byzantine a ƙarni na 6, ya fara yin tambaya game da koyarwar Aristotle game da kimiyyar lissafi, yana gabatar da ka'idar ƙarfafawa . [4] : 307, 311, 363, 402 Sukar da ya yi ta zama abin ƙarfafa gwiwa ga masana zamanin da da Galileo Galilei, waɗanda suka yi ta ambaton ayyukansa sosai bayan ƙarni goma. [4] : 307–308 

A ƙarshen zamanin da da kuma farkon zamanin Tsakiyar Tsakiya, an fi yin nazari kan abubuwan da suka faru na halitta ta hanyar tsarin Aristotelian. Tsarin ya haɗa da dalilai guda huɗu na Aristotle: dalilai na zahiri, na zahiri, masu inganci, da kuma na ƙarshe. Daular Byzantine ta kiyaye rubuce-rubucen gargajiya da yawa na Girka, kuma Kiristoci ne suka yi fassarar Larabci, galibin su Nestorians da Miaphysites . A zamanin mulkin Abbasiyawa, masana kimiyyar Larabawa sun inganta waɗannan fassarorin Larabci daga baya kuma suka haɓaka su.  : 62–67 A ƙarni na 6 da 7, Daular Sasanian da ke makwabtaka da ita ta kafa Kwalejin Kiwon Lafiya ta Gondishapur, wadda likitocin Girka, Siriya, da Farisa suka ɗauke ta a matsayin cibiyar kiwon lafiya mafi muhimmanci a duniyar da ta daɗe.

Nazarin Musulunci game da Aristotelianism ya bunƙasa a Gidan Hikima da aka kafa a babban birnin Abbasid na Baghdad, Iraki kuma ya bunƙasa [31] har zuwa lokacin da Mongols suka mamaye a ƙarni na 13. Ibn al-Haytham, wanda aka fi sani da Alhazen, ya yi amfani da gwaje-gwajen da aka sarrafa a cikin bincikensa na gani. [lower-alpha 1] [33] [34] Tarin littattafan likitanci na Avicenna na The Canon of Medicine, wani littafi mai suna Medical Encyclopedia, ana ɗaukarsa a matsayin ɗaya daga cikin littattafai mafi mahimmanci a fannin likitanci kuma an yi amfani da shi har zuwa ƙarni na 18. [35]

A ƙarni na 11, yawancin Turai sun zama Kiristoci,  : 204 kuma a shekara ta 1088, Jami'ar Bologna ta fito a matsayin jami'a ta farko a Turai. [36] Saboda haka, buƙatar fassarar tsoffin rubuce-rubucen kimiyya da na Latin ta ƙaru, [4] : 204 babban mai ba da gudummawa ga Renaissance na ƙarni na 12 . Ilimin boko na Renaissance a Yammacin Turai ya bunƙasa, inda aka yi gwaje-gwaje ta hanyar lura, bayyanawa, da rarraba batutuwa a cikin yanayi. A ƙarni na 13, malaman likitanci da ɗaliban Bologna sun fara buɗe jikin ɗan adam, wanda ya haifar da littafin farko na ilimin halittar jiki wanda ya dogara da rarrabawar ɗan adam ta Mondino de Luzzi .

Farfado da Zamanin Farfadowa

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Map of Europe with dots marking cities where printing presses were established by the end of the fifteenth century
Yaɗuwar bugu tsakanin 1440 da 1500.

Daga shagon buga littattafai guda ɗaya da ke Mainz, Jamus a kusan shekara ta 1440, injin buga littattafai masu motsi ya bazu zuwa kusan birane 270 a Tsakiya, Yamma da Gabashin Turai kuma ya riga ya samar da littattafai sama da miliyan 20 a ƙarshen ƙarni na 15. [37] Buga littattafai ya sa littattafan ilimi su fi sauƙin samu, wanda hakan ya ba masu bincike damar duba tsoffin rubuce-rubuce cikin 'yanci da kuma kwatanta abubuwan da suka lura da su da na sauran malamai. Bugawa ta kawo ƙarshen al'adar rubuce-rubuce ta Tsakiyar Zamani, inda gaskiya ba ta da yawa, kuma ta maye gurbinta da al'adar bugawa inda gaskiya mai inganci da rubuce-rubuce ta yaɗu cikin sauri kuma ta zama tushe mai aminci ga ilimin kimiyya. [38]

A ƙarni na 16, Nicolaus Copernicus ya ƙirƙiro samfurin Tsarin Rana mai tsayin daka mai haske, inda Rana take kusa da tsakiyar duniya, [39] ba ta motsi, tare da Duniya da sauran duniyoyi suna kewaye da ita a cikin motsi na zagaye, an gyara ta da ƙwanƙwasa-ƙwanƙwasa, kuma a cikin saurin daidai. Tsarin Copernican ya ƙalubalanci tsarin Ptolemy mai rinjaye, wanda ya sanya Duniya a tsakiyar sararin samaniya. Masana ilmin taurari na ƙarni na 16 sun yi imanin cewa kawar da daidaiton da Copernicus ya yi shine babban nasararsa, amma samfurinsa bai taɓa maye gurbin Ptolemy ba, wanda ya faɗi ƙasa bayan shekaru 70 bayan binciken Galileo na 1610.

Juyin Juya Halin Kimiyya

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Abubuwan da Tycho Brahe ya lura da su a fannin ilmin taurari a ƙarshen ƙarni na 16 da kuma abubuwan da Galileo Galilei ya lura a farkon ƙarni na 17 sun haɗu suka mayar da ilmin taurari ya zama kimiyyar zamani ta farko. Abubuwan da Galileo ya lura sun kawo ƙarshen shekaru dubu na tsarin ilmin taurari na kafin zamani, [ 95 ] yayin da Johannes Kepler ya yi amfani da bayanan Brahe don gano cewa duniyoyi suna da kewaya mai siffar elliptical, ba zagaye ba, kuma sun haɓaka dokokin motsi na duniyoyi . [40] Saboda Kepler, an fara ganin abubuwan da suka faru a sararin samaniya a matsayin waɗanda dokokin zahiri ke tafiyar da su. [41] "Sabon Kimiyya" wanda daga ƙarshe ya bayyana a ƙarshen ƙarni na 17 ya karya sosai da falsafar halitta da ta gabace shi, [42] [43] ya rabu da ra'ayoyi da al'adun Girkawa na baya, ya fi ƙwarewa a fahimtar duniya kuma ya fi haɗewa da lissafi, [44] kuma ya damu da neman da fassara sabbin shaidu. [45]

Zamanin Wayewa

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Shafin taken bugu na farko na Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica na 1687 by Isaac Newton

A farkon Zamanin Wayewa, Isaac Newton ya kafa harsashin makanikai na gargajiya tare da Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, yana tasiri sosai ga masana kimiyyar lissafi na gaba. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz ya haɗa kalmomi daga kimiyyar lissafi ta Aristotelian, wanda yanzu ake amfani da shi ta wata sabuwar hanya wacce ba ta hanyar sadarwa ba. Wannan yana nuna canji a ra'ayin abubuwa: yanzu an ɗauki abubuwa a matsayin waɗanda ba su da wani buri na asali. Leibniz ya ɗauka cewa nau'ikan abubuwa daban-daban duk suna aiki ne bisa ga dokokin yanayi iri ɗaya, ba tare da wani dalili na musamman ko na ƙarshe ba.

A wannan lokacin, manufar kimiyya da darajarta da aka bayyana ta zama samar da wadata da kirkire-kirkire da za su inganta rayuwar ɗan adam, a ma'anar abin duniya na samun ƙarin abinci, tufafi, da sauran abubuwa. A cikin kalmomin Bacon, "manufar kimiyya ta gaskiya kuma halaltacciyar hanya is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches ", kuma ya hana masana kimiyya bin ra'ayoyin falsafa ko na ruhaniya marasa taɓawa, waɗanda ya yi imanin cewa ba su da wani tasiri ga farin cikin ɗan adam fiye da "hasashe mai zurfi, mai ɗaukaka ko mai daɗi".

A lokacin wayewar kai, al'ummomin kimiyya da makarantu sun mamaye kimiyya, waɗanda suka maye gurbin jami'o'i a matsayin cibiyoyin bincike da ci gaban kimiyya. Al'umma da makarantu su ne ginshiƙan ci gaban sana'ar kimiyya. Wani muhimmin ci gaba shi ne yadda aka yaɗa kimiyya a tsakanin al'ummar da ke ƙara karatu da rubutu. Masana falsafar wayewa sun juya ga wasu daga cikin magabatansu na kimiyya – Galileo, Kepler, Boyle, da Newton galibi – a matsayin jagora ga kowane fanni na zahiri da na zamantakewa na yau. [46]

A ƙarni na 18, an sami ci gaba mai mahimmanci a fannin likitanci da kimiyyar lissafi; ci gaban tsarin nazarin halittu na Carl Linnaeus ; [47] sabuwar fahimtar maganadisu da wutar lantarki; da kuma balagar ilmin sunadarai a matsayin fanni. Ra'ayoyi kan yanayin ɗan adam, al'umma, da tattalin arziki sun samo asali ne a lokacin wayewar kai. Hume da sauran masu tunani game da wayewar Scotland sun ƙirƙiri Littafin A Treatise of Human Nature, wanda marubuta suka bayyana a tarihi a cikin ayyukan da suka haɗa da James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar da William Robertson, waɗanda dukkansu suka haɗa wani bincike na kimiyya game da yadda mutane ke yin aiki a cikin al'adun gargajiya da na asali tare da fahimtar ƙarfin da ke tattare da zamani . [48] Ilimin zamantakewa na zamani ya samo asali ne daga wannan motsi. [49] A shekarar 1776, Adam Smith ya buga littafin The Wealth of Nations, wanda galibi ana ɗaukarsa a matsayin littafi na farko kan tattalin arzikin zamani.

ƙarni na 19

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Sketch of a map with captions
The first diagram of an evolutionary tree made by Charles Darwin in 1837

A ƙarni na 19, halaye daban-daban na kimiyyar zamani sun fara bayyana. Waɗannan sun haɗa da sauya yanayin rayuwa da kimiyyar zahiri; yawan amfani da kayan aikin da suka dace; fitowar kalmomi kamar "masanin halittu", "masanin kimiyyar lissafi", da "masanin kimiyya"; ƙaruwar ƙwarewa ga waɗanda ke nazarin yanayi; masana kimiyya suna samun ikon al'adu akan fannoni daban-daban na al'umma; haɓaka masana'antu na ƙasashe da yawa; bunƙasar rubuce-rubucen kimiyya masu shahara; da kuma fitowar mujallun kimiyya. [50] A ƙarshen ƙarni na 19, ilimin halayyar ɗan adam ya fito a matsayin fanni daban da falsafa lokacin da Wilhelm Wundt ya kafa dakin gwaje-gwaje na farko don binciken ilimin halayyar ɗan adam a 1879.

A tsakiyar karni na 19, Charles Darwin da Alfred Russel Wallace da kansu sun gabatar da ka'idar juyin halitta ta hanyar Zaɓin halitta a 1858, wanda ya bayyana yadda tsire-tsire da dabbobi daban-daban suka samo asali kuma suka samo asali. An tsara ka'idarsu dalla-dalla a cikin littafin Darwin On the Origin of Species, wanda aka buga a 1859. [51] A gefe guda, Gregor Mendel ya gabatar da takarda "Experiments on Plant Hybridisation" a cikin 1865, wanda ya tsara ka'idodin gadon halittu, yana aiki a matsayin tushen kwayoyin halitta na zamani. [52][53]

A farkon karni na 19, John Dalton ya gabatar da ka'idar atomic ta zamani, bisa ga ra'ayin Democritus na asali na ƙwayoyin da ba za a iya raba su ba da ake kira atoms . Dokokin kiyaye makamashi, kiyaye ƙarfin kuzari, da kuma kiyaye yawan jama'a sun nuna cewa akwai sararin samaniya mai ƙarfi inda ba za a iya samun ƙarancin asarar albarkatu ba. Duk da haka, tare da zuwan injin tururi da juyin juya halin masana'antu, an sami ƙarin fahimtar cewa ba duk nau'ikan makamashi suna da halaye iri ɗaya na makamashi ba, sauƙin canzawa zuwa aiki mai amfani ko zuwa wani nau'in makamashi. Wannan fahimta ta haifar da ci gaban dokokin thermodynamics, inda ake ganin kuzarin duniya kyauta yana raguwa koyaushe: entropy na sararin samaniya mai rufewa yana ƙaruwa akan lokaci.

An kafa ka'idar lantarki a ƙarni na 19 ta hanyar ayyukan Hans Christian Ørsted, André-Marie Ampère, Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Oliver Heaviside, da Heinrich Hertz . Sabuwar ka'idar ta haifar da tambayoyi waɗanda ba za a iya amsa su cikin sauƙi ta amfani da tsarin Newton ba. Gano hasken X-ray ya yi wahayi zuwa ga gano hasken rediyo ta hanyar Henri Becquerel da Marie Curie a shekarar 1896; Daga nan sai Marie Curie ta zama mutum na farko da ta lashe kyaututtukan Nobel guda biyu. [54] A shekara mai zuwa aka gano ƙwayar farko ta subatomic, wato electron . [55]

ƙarni na 20

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Graph showing lower ozone concentration at the South Pole
Jadawalin kwamfuta na ramin ozone da aka yi a shekarar 1987 ta amfani da bayanai daga na'urar hangen nesa ta sararin samaniya

A rabin farko na ƙarni, haɓaka magungunan kashe ƙwayoyin cuta da takin zamani ya inganta yanayin rayuwar ɗan adam a duniya. [56] [57] Matsalolin muhalli masu illa kamar raguwar iskar ozone, ƙara yawan sinadarin acid a cikin teku, fitar da iskar oxygen, da sauyin yanayi sun jawo hankalin jama'a kuma sun haifar da fara nazarin muhalli . [58]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
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  1. ↑ Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics disputed Claudius Ptolemy's extramission theory of vision: "Hence, the extramission of [visual] rays is superfluous and useless". See A. Mark Smith's translation from the Latin,[32] Book I, [6.54], pp. 372, 408.
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