Ulkāmukha Pretarāja

Ming dynasty painting of Ulkāmukha Pretarāja from Baoning Temple.

Ulkāmukha Pretarāja (Sanskrit: उल्कामुख प्रेतराज; Chinese and Japanese: 焰口鬼王; pinyin: Yànkǒu Guǐwáng; rōmaji: Enkō Kiō), commonly known in Chinese as Mianran Dashi (Chinese: 面燃大士, pinyin: Miànrán Dàshì, lit: "Burning-Face Mahāsattva"), is a deity within Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhist traditions, particularly prevalent in East Asian Buddhism. He is considered a manifestation of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin), specifically appearing in a wrathful form to aid beings trapped in the preta realm (pretaloka), the realm of hungry ghosts.

Etymology

The Sanskrit name Ulkāmukha means "flaming mouth" or "torch-faced", referring to his appearance. Pretarāja means "king of the pretas" or "king of the hungry ghosts".

Iconography

Ulkāmukha Pretarāja is typically depicted like a hungry ghost, with a fearsome appearance, often with multiple arms and heads, symbolizing his power and ability to overcome obstacles. He is characterized by a gaping mouth with flames emanating from it, representing his ability to consume negative karma and the suffering of pretas. His expression is fierce, signifying his role as both protector and liberator. Sometimes he is depicted with the uniform of a general, emphasizing his role as a leader of the hungry ghosts. He may hold various ritual implements, such as a vajra, a rope, or a treasure pagoda, each embodying different aspects of his power and compassion. He sometimes holds a banner with the mantra Om mani padme hum written on it. A crown adorned with skulls is often depicted, symbolizing the impermanence of life. In paintings or effigies, he is always depicted with an emanation of Guanyin above his head, emphasizing his true form.

In Buddhist scriptures

The Flaming-Faced Ghost King (面燃鬼王) appears in several Buddhist scriptures, including the Sutra on the Dharani for Saving the Flaming-Mouthed Hungry Ghosts (佛說救拔焰口餓鬼陀羅尼經) and the Yoga Compendium: Dharani for Saving Ananda and the Flaming-Mouthed Ritual (瑜珈集要救阿難陀羅尼焰口軌儀經), translated by Amoghavajra (不空三藏) during the Tang dynasty, and the Sutra on the Dharani and Divine Mantra for Saving the Flaming-Faced Hungry Ghosts (救面燃餓鬼陀羅尼神咒經), translated by Śikṣānanda^[zh] (實叉難陀) during the Tang dynasty.

According to these texts, Ananda encountered a ghost king while meditating in a forest. The ghost king had a thin body and flames around his face. He identified himself as Mianran (面燃), also known as Yankou (Flaming Mouth), and told Ananda that he would be reborn in the hungry ghost realm (餓鬼道) after three days. He instructed Ananda to make offerings to large numbers of hungry ghosts and Brahmin sages and to the Three Jewels (三寶). Ananda then asked Śākyamuni Buddha how he could avoid this fate. The Buddha taught him a ritual and dhāraṇī that he had received in a previous life from Guanyin. According to the sūtra, the ritual could provide food for hungry ghosts and extend the life of the person performing it. The dhāraṇī transformed the food into a spiritual offering, which was then offered to the Three Jewels and distributed among hungry ghosts and other beings. The ritual was said to relieve the suffering of hungry ghosts and allow them to be reborn in the heavenly realm. Ananda followed the Buddha's instructions, set up a tablet for Mianran Dashi (面燃大士; Miànrán Dàshì; 'Burning-Face Mahāsattva'), made a vegetarian offering to the monastic community, and prayed for blessings.

Buddhist traditions give different accounts of the identity of Mianran Dashi. One identifies him with Guanyin, which is associated with the title Dashiye (大士爺; Dashiye; 'Master Mahāsattva'). Another account describes him as a leader of ghosts who was converted to Buddhism by Guanyin and later became known as Dashiye, a deity associated with the Ghost Festival (中元普渡).

The image of Mianran Dashi has also been linked to the Lotus Sutra, in which Guanyin takes the form of a ghost king to teach beings in the hungry ghost realm. Another interpretation associates the figure with warnings about greed and stinginess, which are said to lead to rebirth in the hungry ghost realm.

Worship

Statue of Flaming-Faced Ghost King.

In Buddhism, the figure is known as the "King of Ghosts with a Face Burning in Flames" and is identified in some traditions as an incarnation of Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara) Bodhisattva. In the story of Ananda, the Buddha teaches a ritual for making offerings to hungry ghosts after Ananda encounters the hungry ghost Mianran (面然). The ritual became associated with the Yujia Yankou rite in Chinese Buddhism and is also performed during the Ghost Festival.

In Vietnamese Buddhism, the figure is known as Tiêu Diện Đại Sĩ and is worshipped as a Dharma protector alongside Skanda.

The Flaming-Faced Ghost King is also worshipped in some Taoist traditions. He is identified with Taiyi Jiuku Tianzun (太乙救苦天尊, the Heavenly Lord of Salvation from Suffering), who is associated with the protection of the living and the dead. According to Taoist tradition, the Flaming-Faced Ghost King resides at the foot of Mount Wojiao (沃焦之山) and commands the ghosts of the underworld. During the seventh lunar month, he is associated with the Ghost Festival and with the offerings made to wandering spirits. In some places, people first pay homage to Mianran Dashi before making offerings to wandering spirits.

In Taiwan, a few temples are dedicated to the deity as their main god. These include the Dashiye Temple in Minxiong Township, Chiayi County, and Longhu Temple (龍湖廟) in Xiaogang District, Kaohsiung City.

Yulanpen Festival

A paper effigy of Ulkāmukha Pretarāja in the Toufen Yimin Temple.

During the Ghost Festival (Yulanpen Festival), Pudu Gong, a Taoist counterpart of Ulkāmukha Pretarāja, is worshipped before offerings are made to deceased spirits. In Bukit Mertajam, Penang, Malaysia, a large paper effigy of Dashiye (大士爺) is erected at Pek Kong Cheng (伯公埕). The effigy is 26 feet 8 inches tall and is used as part of the annual Zhongyuan Festival celebrations.

During the festival, people visit the Dashiye Hall (大士爺殿) of the Bukit Mertajam Zhongyuan Festival Association to worship the effigy.

Close-up of a Mianran Dashi effigy displayed during the Yulanpen Festival in Singapore.

After the Pudu (Universal Salvation) ceremony, the "Sending Off the Mahāsattva" (送大士) ritual is performed. The paper effigy of Dashiye is dismantled, and the image of Guanyin placed on top is removed. A designated person takes the Guanyin image home for worship. The ritual also marks the end of the ceremonies for Dashiye, the Mountain Gods, the Earth Gods, the Dharma Protectors, and other deities. The wandering spirits are then sent back to the underworld.

Joss paper and spirit money, known as the "Golden Mountains" (金山) and "Silver Mountains" (銀山), are burned as part of the ceremony. Paper effigies of the deities are also burned.

In some Yulan Festival celebrations, including the Thirty Houses Yulan Festival in Central Hong Kong, bamboo poles are used to strike the paper effigy when the Guanyin image is removed and the effigy is burned. According to the tradition, this is done to ensure that no wandering spirits remain attached to the effigy.