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Pacifism became prominent during the 1889 centennial of the French Revolution, when two meetings were held.[1]

Pacifism in France refers to pacifism, the opposition to war or violence, in France. French pacifism encompasses several historic and modern political movements, generally those that advocate against war and nuclear testing. The French pacifist movement first became prominent in 1889, and it grew in influence throughout the 20th century, although it was slightly hampered by the invasion of France during the Second World War.[1][2] France is a founding member of the Inter-Parliamentary Union, which has 178 members and was founded in 1889.[3][4] France is a member state of several organisations with stated pacifist goals, such as the United Nations, of which it is a founding nation, along with 51 other states.[5] France is also home to several explicitly pacifist movements, such as the Mouvement de la Paix.[6] However, pacifist organisations have faced a mixed reception. The French government has endorsed some movements, while suppressing others, with one of the most notable instances being the 1955 bombing of the ship Rainbow Warrior, operated by the organisation Greenpeace. The most prominent active organisations in France include Greenpeace and Pax Christi.

National service, or as it is called in France, service national universel, was abolished in the 1990s. The option of government service was made available for pacifists by the national service in the 1960s, under the presidency of Charles de Gaulle, after a hunger strike by Louis Lecoin, in continuation of the campaign he started in 1958.[7][8][9][10][11] Organisations such as Amnesty International have criticised the French government for obfuscating the procedure through which pacifists can enroll in non-military national service.[12] In 2025, the French government announced that it would begin voluntary military service by mid-2026.[13][14] People have been able to apply since January 2026.[15]

In 2026, France ranked 99th out of 163 on the annual Global Peace Index; in 2007, it ranked 34th.[a][17][18] This was due to increasing levels of violence, with one in ten people reporting having been victim of a violent crime.[19]

History

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Pre-1914

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Pacifism can be traced to early Christianity and its tenets of non-violence.[b] For many early Christians, service to the state or the military was seen as unacceptable. Some have argued that oath(s) of allegiance were a particular point of contention.[21][22] This can be demonstrated through the case of the Quakers, who in February 1791 began to petition the government for an exemption to military service and the taking of civic oaths.[23][24]

The Quaker movement in France had its first meeting in 1785, with formal affiliation, centred in Congénies, being achieved between the English Quakers and the French Quakers in 1789.[24][25] Significant figures, such as Voltaire, supported the Quaker movement, and, in a set of letters in 1734, called them "noble".[26][27] While some authors, such as Matt Phillpott, write that before the British affiliation, French Quakers did not focus on "the military question", the Quakers are typically understood as a pacifist movement.[28] As soon as the French Revolution of 1789 occurred, the French Quakers began to try and secure the same military exemption that they had held before the revolution. The Quakers believed they would be able to achieve this exemption due to Article 10 in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which stated: "No one may be disturbed on account of his opinions, even religious ones, as long as the manifestation of such opinions does not interfere with the established Law and Order".[29][30] Gabriel Riqueti (or Mirabeau) responded to the petition by arguing that wars of offence were wrong, whilst wars of defence were the duty of citizens for a plethora of reasons, such as it being necessary for a peaceful state as well as a religious duty. Furthermore, legally, the "by law" exception in the clause allowed the government to say that by law, the Quakers were supposed to join the military as well as having to swear oaths. As a result, the Quakers ended up having to swear both oaths and fight in the French military.[31]

Anti authoritarian thought was rife in Europe during the 1850s and 1860s, due to conferences such as the Congress on Artistic and Literary property, which took place in Brussels in 1858 and in Antwerp in 1861, and the International Student Congress in Liege in 1865.[32] One of the early examples of pacifism was in 1866, in which Napoleon III stated that he had the intention of annexing Luxembourg, but, both internal and external public opinion was against this war. A manifesto calling a congress was released in June 1867, and it would meet in Geneva in the beginning of September as the League of Peace and Freedom, with a programme issued in July. The goal of the congress was to "determine the political and economic conditions of peace among the nations, and in particular to establish the United States of Europe".[c] There were close to 10,000 attendees at the conference, including the French philosopher and writer Edgar Quinet.[33] Some French delegates, such as Paul Dupont, argued that peace was a result of certain circumstances and that for it to be achieved, it was needed for all citizens to be in a class of workers. This was in line with the proposal of Giuseppe Garibaldi's proposal during the summit. Some at the conference argued that the concept of nationality should be abolished.[34] The peace summit was not without problems, with the Marx ally Sigismud Ludwig Borkheim advocating for war on Russia in order to secure European peace.[35]

The pacifist movement in France began to gain traction during the 1889 centennial celebration of the French Revolution.[1] During the event, there were two conferences, with 92 members of parliament from nine different countries. In the first meeting, co-chaired by the English M.P William Randal Cremer, the Inter-Parliamentary Union was founded, which today encompasses 178 states.[3] This was the first of 21 Universal Peace congresses that occurred prior to 1914.[4]

The term pacifism was coined by the French peace campaigner Émile Arnaud and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress, held in Glasgow in 1901.[36][37] During the event, a resolution was passed, stating that the congress desired that persistent efforts be made for people to follow "the great moral law" and become anti-war and anti-militarist.[38]

The French peace movement rapidly expanded, and by 1913, it included 28 different peace organisations. In the view of Roger Chickering, the rise of these organisations can be attributed to the Dreyfus affair.[39]

The French socialist leader and pacifist Jean Jaurès was assassinated by a nationalist just before the beginning of the First World War. He was a French member of parliament and had campaigned to stop the war from happening.[40][41]

During the First World War

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Many pacifists, such as Quakers, became medics and non-combatants during the First World War.[42][43] In France, there was compulsory military service between 20 and 23, and people were reservists until they were 30. Until 45, French men could be territorials.[44] As conscientious objection was illegal, many pacifists were forced to join the army.[45]

Interwar period

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French soldiers leaving their trench during the Battle of Verdun, 1916. Over 63,000 people died, and 216,000 were injured on the French side.[46]

After the First World War, pacifism became a bipartisan movement. The French economist Jacques Fontanel has argued that this led to disarmament in France, which subsequently yielded appeasement with Germany without rearmament.[2] The most significant process in appeasement was the Munich Agreement,[47] which allowed Germany to take over the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, under the pretext that the region's inhabitants were German speakers.[48] Many public figures in Czechoslovakia felt that they had been betrayed, first by France, then by Britain.[49] The Munich Agreement also greatly damaged Czechoslovakia's defences, as the bulk of the were in the Sudetenland.[50]

Veterans comprised a significant section of French society, accounting for 5.85 million people, or 45% of the male population, in 1930.[51] According to Antoine Prost, one in six Frenchmen belonged to a veterans' movement in the 1920s. Furthermore, one in four families had experienced a casualty as a direct result of the First World War.[52] The writer and activist Émilie Carles described her idealogical conversion to pacifism in her book A Life of Her Own: The Transformation of a Countrywoman in Twentieth-Century France, after her brother returned from the Western Front in 1916.[53][54]

The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919.[55]

Although intellectuals had supported France during the First World War, during the interwar period, they were the driving force behind pacifism.[56] In 1925, a petition for the revision of the Treaty of Versailles collected the signatures of over 100 French personalities.[57]

Prior to the First World War, the police had focused on suppressing pacifist sentiment in the Parisian intelligentsia. By the end of the First World War, the appeal of pacifism had spread to farmers and workers, far removed from the "high society" that the police frequently monitored.[52]

During the post-war period, French intellectuals played a significant role in pacifism. It appeared in literature, cinema, and music. The writer Romain Rolland published the "Déclaration de l'indépendance de l'Esprit" in the newspaper L'Humanité in 1919, to propose pacifist principles to the intellectuals of the time, enabling France to play a role in the process of European unity around peace.[58]

Some intellectuals, such as the philosopher Han Ryner, supported conscientious objection in their writing, though the concept did not become widely known within France until the 1920s.[59][60] The phrase objecteur de conscience (conscientious objector) entered French dictionaries in 1933. The historian Norman Ingram has argued that despite this, the word would have been commonly used earlier by many in society. Some books on the topic of conscientious objection were published as early as the 1920s.[61] Even with public awareness, conscientious objectors were not recognised by the French state for several decades, however, and thus had little to no recourse; recognition of conscientious objection was only codified in 1963.[62][63]

In the 1920s, there were groups active in France that supported conscientious objection, such as War Resisters' International and the International Fellowship of Reconciliation.[64]

The Catholic peace activist Marc Sangnier organised the Bierville conference in 1926, which was supported by the Church. The event, which was attended by bishops from Ârras, Chalons, Monaco, and Versailles, involved a trip to WWI battlefields.[65]

Some individuals opposed conscription on religious grounds, such as Henri Roser, a pastor and head of the French branch of the International Fellowship of Reconciliation.[66] For his stance, he was imprisoned.[67]

A trench tomb: 1,150,000 French people were killed during the First World War.[68][d]

Some historians, such as Omer Bartov and Antoine Proost, believe the damage caused by the war created circumstances in France during the 1920s and 1930s that were ripe for pacifism.[69][70]

The historian Sandi E. Cooper has argued that the First World War created interest among feminist groups in improving social issues such as school curricula and building playgrounds. This, she has argued, differs from other anti-militarist movements, which focused on more political issues, such as revolution and socialism.[71]

During the Second World War

[edit]

The French had a weak military immediately prior to the Second World War due to appeasement, which had led to disarmament in France.[clarification needed][72] During and after the war, there was a level of discontentment and anger towards pacifism, which many perceived to have caused the nation's fall.[2][73]

Little information is known about pacifist movements during the German occupation. For example, the Red Cross has no archives from 1940 to 1946.[74]

1945–2000

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The French peace movement, Mouvement De La Paix, was established in 1948.
The Rainbow Warrior was sunk in 1985.

Jacques Fontanel has argued that disarmament led to pacifism becoming a taboo after World War II and the subsequent invasion of France in 1940.[2] On 26 June 1945, 50 countries, including France, signed the Charter of the United Nations,[75] which proclaims that members should be committed to saving succeeding generations from war.[76] France is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, nations with special privileges and a "responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security".[77][78] In addition to the UN, another pacifist organisation, Pax Christi, was founded on 13 March 1945.[79][80]

The NGO Mouvement de la Paix ("movement of peace") was founded in 1948, with the purpose of opposing war and nuclear armaments.[6] The organisation has called for peace talks and condemned international aggression.[81][82]

A law was passed in December 1963, granting conscientious objectors legal status. This had been campaigned for by many but especially Louis Lecoin, who went on hunger strike in order for the law to be drafted.[7][8][9][10] France has not required military service since 1997.[e][85]

The French pacifist movement began to merge into a movement against Nuclear weapons testing along with neutralism and communism during the 1950s and 1960s.[86] The French government's relationship with these protesters was generally negative. The French intelligence service, the DGSE, bombed the Greenpeace-owned boat Rainbow Warrior on 10 July 1985. The vessel had been used in protests against French nuclear tests in the Pacific.[87][88] The event drew little domestic opposition, though it was condemned internationally. At the time, Foreign Affairs reported rising discontent in the region and internationally with the French presence in the Pacific.[89]

Greenpeace and Mouvement De La Paix joined protests aimed at ending French nuclear testing programs in 1995.[90] A year later, Greenpeace protesters were arrested by the French navy during a major event.[91] France was one of the first countries to ratify the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty in 1998.[92][93]

The United Nations called for the cessation of nuclear tests.[93]

21st century

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In 2021, the French government was the sixth-biggest contributor to UN peacekeeping operations.[94]

Since 2021, France has been the sixth-biggest contributor to UN peacekeeping operations, with 683 military staff deployed that year. Over 300 military and police cooperation officers were sent to 50 separate countries.[94] The French delegation to the United Nations reconfirmed their commitment to pacifism in 2025.[95] In 2026, the nation contributed 611 of the 7,448 UN peacekeepers.[96]

Mouvement De La Paix has called for peace talks during the Russo-Ukrainian war and has condemned the Russian offensive action. In 2023, the movement started a petition for peace.[81][82]

The Élysée Palace hosted a conference on the Gaza war in 2023. Pax Christi then published a statement, calling for an immediate ceasefire.[97] In 2024, several organisations, including Pax Christi, called for the end of arms transfers to both Israeli and Palestinian groups.[98]

The French government's 2025 stated intention to increase its military budget to 3.5% of GDP[99] was criticized by pacifist movements, with Mouvement De La Paix saying, "Money for healthcare, not for nuclear weapons!"[100]

Despite France's commitment to peacekeeping, the nation ranked 99 on the 2026 Global Peace Index.[101][102] It was ranked as the least peaceful country in Western and Central Europe, due to an increase in domestic violent crime.[19]

The French government announced in 2025 that it would begin voluntary military service by mid-2026.[13][14]

Notable French pacifists

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ↑ The Global Peace Index is released every June by Economics and Peace.[16]
  2. ↑ For example, Matthew 39: But I tell you, do not resist an evil person. If anyone slaps you on the right cheek, turn to them the other cheek also.[20]
  3. ↑ The League of Peace and Freedom should not be confused with the League of Nations.
  4. ↑ The number includes killed, missing in action, and dead from wounds
  5. ↑ Although some sources date the end of national service to 1996, this was the policy announcement.[83][84]

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 3 Cooper, Sandi E. (1991). "Pacifism in France, 1889-1914: International Peace as a Human Right". French Historical Studies. 17 (2): 360. doi:10.2307/286462. JSTOR 286462. Archived from the original on 7 November 2025. Retrieved 20 August 2026.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Fontanel, Jacques (1986). "An Underdeveloped Peace Movement: The Case of France". Journal of Peace Research. 23 (2). Sage Publications, Ltd.: 175–182. doi:10.1177/002234338602300207. ISSN 0022-3433. JSTOR 423908. Retrieved 3 August 2026.
  3. 1 2 "The Inter-Parliamentary Union". UK Parliament. Retrieved 4 August 2026.
  4. 1 2 Cooper, Sandi E. (1991). "Pacifism in France, 1889–1914: International Peace as a Human Right". French Historical Studies. 17 (2). [Duke University Press, Society for French Historical Studies]: 362. doi:10.2307/286462. ISSN 0016-1071. JSTOR 286462. Retrieved 4 August 2026.
  5. ↑ "Research Guides: UN Membership: UN Founding Members". United Nations. Dag Hammarskjöld Library. 8 November 2018. Archived from the original on 4 July 2019. Retrieved 10 August 2026.
  6. 1 2 "Le Mouvement De La Paix". mvtpaix.org. Archived from the original on 1 February 2026. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  7. 1 2 3 ""La mise au point du statut est achevée" écrit le premier ministre à M. Kastler" ["The finalization of the statute is complete", the Prime Minister wrote to Mr. Kastler.]. Le Monde (in French). 23 June 1962. ISSN 1950-6244. Retrieved 29 July 2026.
  8. 1 2 3 "Louis Lecoin, enfermé pour ses idées" [Louis Lecoin, imprisoned for his ideas]. europe1.fr (in French). 18 March 2022. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2026.
  9. 1 2 3 "Le Mouvement De La Paix" (PDF). mvtpaix. Retrieved 30 July 2026.
  10. 1 2 "Comité Louis Lecoin | European Bureau for Conscientious Objection". ebco-beoc.org. Archived from the original on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2026.
  11. ↑ "France brings back limited military service with 3,000 volunteers next year". bbc.com. BBC. 27 November 2025. Archived from the original on 5 June 2026. Retrieved 29 July 2026.
  12. ↑ "Conscientious objection to military service" (PDF). Amnesty International: 15–16. 31 January 1991. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 August 2026. Retrieved 29 July 2026.
  13. 1 2 "Quelles sont les modalités du nouveau service national ?" [What are the details of the new national service?]. service-public.gouv.fr (in French). Retrieved 29 July 2026.
  14. 1 2 Chrisafis, Angelique (27 November 2025). "France to introduce voluntary military service amid threat from Russia". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 August 2026.
  15. ↑ "What are the terms of the new national service?". Service Public. 3 December 2025. Retrieved 10 August 2026.
  16. ↑ "2026 Global Peace Index Launch". Institute for Economics & Peace. 3 June 2026. Retrieved 10 August 2026.
  17. ↑ "2026 Global Peace Index Launch". Institute for Economics & Peace. 3 June 2026. Retrieved 10 August 2026.<ref> |name=b}}<ref name=":16">
  18. ↑ "Global, Peace, Index, 2007". photius.com. Retrieved 10 August 2026.
  19. 1 2 "Global Peace Index 2026" (PDF). Economics and Peace. p. 27. Retrieved 4 August 2026.
  20. ↑ "Matthew 5:39 New International Version". Bible Gateway. 5 August 2026. Retrieved 20 August 2026.
  21. ↑ Stevenson, Robert C. (1934). "The Evolution of Pacifism". International Journal of Ethics. 44 (4). University of Chicago Press: 437–451. doi:10.1086/intejethi.44.4.2378257. ISSN 1526-422X. JSTOR 2378257. Retrieved 3 August 2026.
  22. ↑ Ph.D, Andrew Holt (9 November 2014). "Early Christian Pacifism?". Andrew Holt, Ph.D. Archived from the original on 12 February 2026. Retrieved 29 July 2026.
  23. ↑ Louis, Jeanne-Henriette (1991), Marienstras, Élise (ed.), "La pétition présentée par Jean de Marcillac, et William et Benjamin Rotch à l'assemblée nationale le 10 Février 1791" [The petition presented by Jean de Marcillac and William and Benjamin Rotch to the National Assembly on February 10, 1791], L'Amérique et le France : Deux révolutions, Internationale (in French), Paris: Éditions de la Sorbonne, pp. 205–210, ISBN 979-10-351-0396-5, archived from the original on 12 August 2026, retrieved 11 August 2026{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
  24. 1 2 "View of Conscientious Objection in Revolutionary France". SAS Open Journals. Retrieved 11 August 2026.
  25. ↑ "La Maison Quaker". Friends Journal. 1 May 2010. Archived from the original on 2 January 2026. Retrieved 11 August 2026.
  26. ↑ "Letters on the English, by Voltaire". Monadnock Valley Press. Retrieved 11 August 2026.
  27. ↑ "Internet History Sourcebooks: Modern History". sourcebooks.web.fordham.edu. Archived from the original on 12 August 2026. Retrieved 11 August 2026.
  28. ↑ "What Is the Quaker Peace Testimony? – Why Don't Quakers Believe in Violence?". Quaker.org. Archived from the original on 11 May 2026. Retrieved 11 August 2026.
  29. ↑ Banks, Bryan A. (2017). "Real and Imaginary Friends in Revolutionary France: Quakers, Political Culture, and the Atlantic World". Eighteenth-Century Studies. 50 (4). [The Johns Hopkins University Press, American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies (ASECS)]: 366. doi:10.1353/ecs.2017.0029. ISSN 0013-2586. JSTOR 44631616. Retrieved 11 August 2026.
  30. ↑ "Declaration of Human and Civic Rights Of 26 August 1789 (Constitution of 4 October 1958)". Conseil constitutionnel. 4 October 1958. Archived from the original on 13 April 2026. Retrieved 11 August 2026.
  31. ↑ Banks, Bryan A. (2017). "Real and Imaginary Friends in Revolutionary France: Quakers, Political Culture, and the Atlantic World". Eighteenth-Century Studies. 50 (4). [The Johns Hopkins University Press, American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies (ASECS)]: 368–370. doi:10.1353/ecs.2017.0029. ISSN 0013-2586. JSTOR 44631616. Retrieved 11 August 2026.
  32. ↑ Castleton, Edward (4 May 2017). "The origins of 'collectivism': Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's contested legacy and the debate about property in the International Workingmen's Association and the League of Peace and Freedom". Global Intellectual History. 2 (2): 177. doi:10.1080/23801883.2017.1350114. ISSN 2380-1883. Retrieved 12 August 2026.
  33. ↑ Carr, E. H. (1935). "The League of Peace and Freedom: An Episode in the Quest for Collective Security". International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1931-1939). 14 (6). [Royal Institute of International Affairs, Wiley]: 837–838. doi:10.2307/2601913. ISSN 1473-8104. JSTOR 2601913. Retrieved 12 August 2026.
  34. ↑ Carr, E. H. (1935). "The League of Peace and Freedom: An Episode in the Quest for Collective Security". International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1931-1939). 14 (6). [Royal Institute of International Affairs, Wiley]: 840–841. doi:10.2307/2601913. ISSN 1473-8104. JSTOR 2601913. Retrieved 12 August 2026.
  35. ↑ Castleton, Edward (4 May 2017). "The origins of 'collectivism': Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's contested legacy and the debate about property in the International Workingmen's Association and the League of Peace and Freedom". Global Intellectual History. 2 (2): 178. doi:10.1080/23801883.2017.1350114. ISSN 2380-1883. Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2026.
  36. ↑ Robbins, Keith (23 October 2016). "The abolition of war: the "Peace Movement" in Britain, 1914–1919". Internet Archive. Retrieved 21 August 2026.
  37. ↑ "Pacifism". Oxford Public International Law. 25 March 1957. Retrieved 4 August 2026.
  38. ↑ "Proceedings of the Glasgow Peace Congress". The Advocate of Peace (1894–1920). 63 (10). World Affairs Institute: 200–207. 1901. ISSN 2155-7799. JSTOR 25751843. Retrieved 4 August 2026.
  39. ↑ Ingram, Norman (3 January 1991). The Politics of Dissent. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198222958.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-822295-8. Archived from the original on 17 July 2020. Retrieved 13 August 2026.
  40. ↑ "Hommage à Jean Jaurès – Assemblée nationale" [Tribute to Jean Jaurès – National Assembly]. assemblee-nationale.fr (in French). Retrieved 29 July 2026.
  41. ↑ "Jean Jaurès, première victime de la guerre | Chemins de mémoire" [Jean Jaurès, the first victim of the war | Paths of Remembrance]. cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr (in French). Retrieved 29 July 2026.
  42. ↑ "Battlefield Medicine: Triage-Field Hospital Section". kumc.edu. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  43. ↑ "Medicine in First World War Europe: Soldiers, Medics, Pacifists by Fiona Reid". Archived from the original on 14 October 2025. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  44. ↑ Browne, Alex (13 August 2018). "Conscription in World War One Explained". History Hit. Archived from the original on 4 August 2026. Retrieved 4 August 2026.
  45. ↑ Cain, Edward R. (1970). "Conscientious Objection in France, Britain, and the United States". Comparative Politics. 2 (2). Comparative Politics, Ph.D. Programs in Political Science, City University of New York: 275–307. doi:10.2307/421281. ISSN 0010-4159. JSTOR 421281. Retrieved 3 August 2026.
  46. ↑ "The Battle of Verdun – Mémorial de Verdun". Mémorial de Verdun. 21 February 1916. Retrieved 3 August 2026.
  47. ↑ "The Munich Agreement and the Policy of Appeasement: Background, Decisions, and Consequences". D-Day Center. 7 August 2025. Retrieved 3 August 2026.
  48. ↑ Duff, Grant. Europe and the Czechs.
  49. ↑ "Czech rulers bow, but under protest". The New York Times. 1 October 1938. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 8 December 2025. Retrieved 29 July 2026.
  50. ↑ "Ministry of Defense is offering bunkers from the 1930s, with prices starting at CZK 90,000". Radio Prague International. 1 October 2025. Retrieved 29 July 2026.
  51. ↑ Velder, Marc De (30 July 2014). "Les Anciens Combattants 1914–1940" [Veterans 1914–1940]. La Cliothèque (in French). Archived from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 19 August 2026.
  52. 1 2 Cooper, Sandi E. (1997). "Pacifism, Feminism, and Fascism in Inter-War France". The International History Review. 19 (1). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 103–114. doi:10.1080/07075332.1997.9640777. ISSN 0707-5332. JSTOR 40108086. Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 3 August 2026.
  53. ↑ Carles, Émilie. A Life of Her Own: The Transformation of a Countrywoman in Twentieth-Century France.
  54. ↑ Cooper, Sandi E. (1997). "Pacifism, Feminism, and Fascism in Inter-War France". The International History Review. 19 (1). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 103–114. doi:10.1080/07075332.1997.9640777. ISSN 0707-5332. JSTOR 40108086. Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2026.
  55. ↑ Drexler, Ken. "Research Guides: Treaty of Versailles: Primary Documents in American History: Introduction". guides.loc.gov. Archived from the original on 15 November 2025. Retrieved 2 August 2026.
  56. ↑ Jean-François Sirinelli, « La France de l'entre-deux-guerres : un trend pacifiste », dans Maurice Vaïsse, Le pacifisme en Europe des années 1920 aux années 1950, Bruxelles, Bruylant, 1993, p.43–50
  57. ↑ Victor Margueritte, Vers la paix : appel aux consciences, Paris, Delpeuch, 1925
  58. ↑ Racine-Furlaud, Nicole (1993). La revue Europe (1923–1939). Du pacifisme rollandien à l'antifascisme compagnon de route », Matériaux pour l'histoire de notre temps (in French) (30 ed.). pp. 21–26.
  59. ↑ "Han Ryner [NER Jacques, Henri, Élie, Ambroise, Mathieu, Ernest, dit] [Dictionnaire des anarchistes] – Maitron" (in French). Retrieved 19 August 2026.
  60. ↑ Frigerio, Vittorio (2014), "19. Han Ryner et les paraboles historiques" [19. Han Ryner and the historical parables], La Littérature de l'anarchisme : Anarchistes de lettres et lettrés face à l'anarchisme, Archives critiques (in French), Grenoble: UGA Éditions, pp. 247–265, ISBN 978-2-37747-106-5, retrieved 19 August 2026{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
  61. ↑ Ingram, Norman (1991). "The Circulaire Chautemps, 1933: The Third Republic Discovers Conscientious Objection". French Historical Studies. Vol. 17 (17 ed.). Duke University Press. p. 388. doi:10.2307/286463. ISSN 0016-1071. JSTOR 286463. Archived from the original on 6 June 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2026.
  62. ↑ "Conscientious objection in France". Bloodyminded. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  63. ↑ Cain, Edward R. (1970). "Conscientious Objection in France, Britain, and the United States". Comparative Politics. 2 (2): 275–307. doi:10.2307/421281. JSTOR 421281. Retrieved 3 August 2026.
  64. ↑ Ingram, Norman (1991). French Historical Studies. Vol. 17 (17 ed.). Duke Univeristy Press. pp. 389–390. doi:10.2307/286463. JSTOR 286463.
  65. ↑ Farrugia, Peter (1999). "Christian Pacifism in France, 1919-1945". Challenge to Mars: Pacifism from 1918 to 1945. University of Toronto Press. p. 103. doi:10.3138/9781442672796-010.
  66. ↑ Farrugia, Peter (1999). "7. The Conviction of Things Not Seen: Christian Pacifism in France, 1919–1945". In Brock, Peter; Socknat, Thomas P. (eds.). Challenge to Mars: Pacifism from 1918 to 1945. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 104. doi:10.3138/9781442672796-010. ISBN 978-1-4426-7279-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  67. ↑ Roser, Henri (1 February 1940). "Communion". The Atlantic. ISSN 2151-9463. Retrieved 14 August 2026.
  68. ↑ Huber, Michel (1931). La population de la France pendant la guerre: avec un appendice sur Les revenus avant et après la guerre [The population of France during the war: with an appendix on incomes before and after the war] (in French). Les Presses universitaires de France. p. 401. Retrieved 21 August 2026.
  69. ↑ Bartov, Omer (1996). "Martyrs' Vengeance: Memory, Trauma, and Fear of War in France, 1918–40". Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques. 22 (1). Berghahn Books: 47–76. ISSN 0315-7997. JSTOR 41299050. Retrieved 2 August 2026.
  70. ↑ Prost, Antoine (1994). "The Impact of War on French and German Political Cultures". The Historical Journal. 37 (1). Cambridge University Press: 209–217. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00014771. ISSN 0018-246X. JSTOR 2640059. Retrieved 14 August 2026.
  71. ↑ Cooper, Sandi E. (1997). "Pacifism, Feminism, and Fascism in Inter-War France". The International History Review. 19 (1). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 103–114. doi:10.1080/07075332.1997.9640777. ISSN 0707-5332. JSTOR 40108086. Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2026.
  72. ↑ Fodor, M. W. (1 October 1940). "The Blitzkrieg in the Low Countries". Foreign Affairs. Vol. 19. Foreign Affairs Magazine. Archived from the original on 17 July 2024. Retrieved 3 August 2026.
  73. ↑ "Research starter: Collapse of France". EBSCO. Retrieved 29 July 2026.
  74. ↑ "Les archives de la Croix-Rouge française | Croix-Rouge française" [The archives of the French Red Cross | French Red Cross]. croix-rouge.fr (in French). Archived from the original on 16 March 2026. Retrieved 29 July 2026.
  75. ↑ Library, Dag Hammarskjöld. "Research Guides: UN Membership: UN Founding Members". research.un.org. Archived from the original on 4 July 2019. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  76. ↑ "Preamble". United Nations. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
  77. ↑ "Current Members | Security Council". main.un.org. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
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  79. ↑ "Notre histoire" [Our history] (in French). 5 March 2021. Retrieved 28 July 2026.
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  90. ↑ Conference on Disarmament-List of Communications received from Non-governmental Organisations and Individuals. United Nations. 1995. p. 2.
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  104. ↑ Clinton, Michael (2007). "Frédéric Passy: Patriotic Pacifist" (PDF). Journal of Historical Biography. 2 (1). University of the Fraser Valley. ISSN 1911–8538.
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  106. ↑ Xavier, Diez (2007). El anarquismo individualista en España (1923–1939) [Individualist anarchism in Spain (1923–1939)] (in Spanish).

Further reading

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Published in the 20th century

  • Sandi E. Cooper (1991). "Peace Societies, 1815–1914: France". Patriotic Pacifism: Waging War on War in Europe, 1815–1914. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-992338-0.
  • Sandi E. Cooper (1991). "Pacifism in France, 1889–1914: International Peace as a Human Right". French Historical Studies. 17 (2): 359–386. doi:10.2307/286462. JSTOR 286462.
  • Norman Ingram (1996). "Ambivalence in the post-Second World War French peace movement, 1946–1952". In Harvey Leonard Dyck (ed.). The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-0777-3.
  • Sandi E. Cooper (1997). "Pacifism, Feminism, and Fascism in Inter-War France". International History Review. 19.
  • Peter Farrugia (1999). "The conviction of things not seen: Christian pacifism in France, 1919–1945". In Peter Brock and Thomas Paul Socknat (ed.). Challenge to Mars: Essays on Pacifism from 1918 to 1945. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-4371-9.

Published in the 21st century

  • Mona L. Siegel. The Moral Disarmament of France: Education, Pacifism, and Patriotism, 1914–1940. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-521-83900-6. (review on H-Net)
[edit]

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