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Griko people

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Griko people
Grecanici
Griko people in the Grecia Calabra area of Calabria, Southern Italy.
Total population
c. 80,000
Regions with significant populations
Southern Italy (especially Bovesia and Salento)
 Apulia54,278 (2005)[1]
 Calabria22,636 (2010)
 Sicily500 (2012)[2]
Languages
Greek (Italiot dialects), Italian, Extreme Southern Italian (Salentino, Central–Southern Calabrian)
Religion
Latin Church
Related ethnic groups
other Greeks, Sicilians, Italians
a Total population count only includes Griko people from Bovesia and Grecia Salentina regions. The number of Griko people from outside these regions remains undetermined.
Griko people at a cultural event in Aspromonte, Calabria, Italy

The Griko people (Greek: Γκρίκο), also known as Grecanici in Calabria,[3][4][5][6][7][8] are an ethnic Greek community of Southern Italy.[9][10][11][12] They are found principally in Calabria and Apulia (peninsula of Salento).[13] The Griko are believed to be remnants of the once extensive ancient[12] and Medieval Greek communities of Southern Italy (the ancient Magna Graecia region), although there is debate among scholars as to whether the Griko community is directly descended from ancient colonists, from medieval migrations during the Byzantine period, or a combination of both.[14][15][16]

A long-standing debate over the origin of the Griko dialect has produced two main theories. According to the first theory, formulated by Giuseppe Morosi in 1870,[17] Griko originated from the Hellenistic Koine when Byzantine-era waves of immigrants arrived from Greece to the Salento. In contrast, Greek linguist Georgios Hatzidakis in 1892 and German philologist Gerhard Rohlfs argued that Griko represents an indigenous dialect evolved directly from Ancient Greek (notably Doric Greek), preserving archaic features from Magna Graecia.[18][19][20]

Greeks have inhabited Southern Italy for millennia, arriving in successive migrations from the ancient Greek colonisation of Southern Italy and Sicily in the 8th century BC through to Byzantine Greek migrations caused by the Ottoman conquest in the 15th century. In the Middle Ages, Greek-speaking areas were reduced to isolated enclaves. Although most Greek inhabitants were Italianized and absorbed by the local population over the centuries,[21] the Griko community preserved its Greek identity, language, and cultural heritage.[11][13] Exposure to modern mass media has progressively eroded their culture and language.[22] A genetic study on Calabrian Greeks from Aspromonte found them to be distinct from surrounding populations and to carry genetic ancestry connecting them to ancient Greek settlements in Magna Graecia.[23]

The Griko traditionally speak Italiot Greek dialects (Griko in Salento or Grecanico in Calabria). By the 21st century, language shift to Italian had significantly reduced the number of active speakers, placing the dialects under severe endangerment.[24] Today, most Griko are Catholics of the Latin Rite.

Name

[edit]

The name Griko derives from the traditional ethnonym for Greeks on the Italian peninsula. It is believed to trace back to the Graecians, an ancient Hellenic tribe that according to legend took their name from Graecus. The Graecians were among the first Greek tribes to colonize Italy, giving rise to the name Magna Graecia. The Latins subsequently applied this term to all Hellenic peoples. Another hypothesis holds that the ethnonym Γρῆκος/-α does not derive directly from Latin Graecus or classical Greek Graikos, but was an indigenous term used by neighboring Italic peoples in pre-Roman times.[25]

Distribution

[edit]
Griko-speaking regions in Salento (Grecìa Salentina) and Calabria.

The Greek-speaking territory of Bovesia lies in mountainous terrain around the southern Aspromonte massif. In modern times, many residents relocated to coastal towns. Calabrian Greek speakers inhabit villages including Bova Superiore, Bova Marina, Roccaforte del Greco, Condofuri, Palizzi, Gallicianò, and Melito di Porto Salvo. In 1999, the Italian Parliament recognized historical Griko territories under Law no. 482, encompassing Palizzi, San Lorenzo, Staiti, Samo, Montebello Jonico, Bagaladi, Motta San Giovanni, Brancaleone, and Reggio Calabria.[26]

In Apulia, the Griko-speaking enclave is concentrated in Grecia Salentina, encompassing Calimera, Martignano, Martano, Sternatia, Zollino, Corigliano d'Otranto, Soleto, Melpignano, and Castrignano dei Greci. Surrounding towns in Apulia and Calabria that once spoke Greek lost the language during the 19th and 20th centuries, including Cardeto, Montebello Ionico, San Pantaleone, and Santa Caterina dello Ionio. At the beginning of the 19th century, today's nine municipalities of Grecia Salentina along with Sogliano Cavour, Cursi, Cannole, and Cutrofiano formed the Decatría Choría (τα Δεκατρία Χωρία),[27] the thirteen towns of Terra d'Otranto preserving Greek speech. In earlier periods, Greek was also spoken in Galatina,[28] Galatone, and Gallipoli,[29] as well as inland across Catanzaro and Cosenza.[30]

Villages in Italy

[edit]

Griko villages typically have both an Italian official name and an indigenous Griko name:

Official status

[edit]

By Law no. 482 of 1999, the Italian parliament officially recognized the Griko communities of Calabria and Salento as a protected linguistic minority. The statute protects the language and heritage of historic Albanian, Catalan, Germanic, Greek, Slovene, and Croat communities, alongside speakers of French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Ladin, Occitan, and Sardinian.[40]

In Sicily, Messina is home to a small Greek-speaking minority descended from Peloponnesian refugees fleeing Ottoman forces between 1533 and 1534, officially recognized under minority protection statutes in 2012.[2][clarification needed]

History

[edit]
Ancient Greek scenes of Southern Italy. Perseus and Andromeda from a vase found in Apulia, c. 4th century BC (left), and woman holding a mirror and a tambourine from Magna Graecia, c. 320 BC (right).

Early migrations

[edit]

The earliest Greek contacts with Italy date to the prehistoric era, when Mycenaean Greeks established maritime trade posts in Southern Italy and Sicily.[41][42] Beginning in the 8th century BC, extensive Greek colonization established independent city-states along the coasts of Calabria, Lucania, Apulia, Campania, and Sicily.[43] The density of these settlements led Roman writers to refer to the territory as Magna Graecia ("Greater Greece").[43]

Medieval migrations and Byzantine era

[edit]

During the Early Middle Ages, following the destructive Gothic War, Southern Italy was reintegrated into the Byzantine Empire. Subsequent waves of Greek-speaking migrants, including administrative officials, monastic communities, and civilian refugees displaced by Avar and Slavic incursions in Greece, settled across Calabria, Apulia, and Sicily.[44][45]

These newcomers integrated with the indigenous Greek-speaking peasantry (*eredi ellenofoni*), who had preserved local forms of Hellenistic Koine and Doric dialects continuously since antiquity.[45] In the 8th century, Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian transferred Southern Italy's ecclesiastical jurisdiction to the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, reinforcing Hellenic religious and administrative influence.[46] Historical records indicate that major portions of Calabria, the Salento, and north-eastern Sicily remained predominantly Greek-speaking through the eleventh century, when the Norman conquest terminated Byzantine political control.[47][48][49]

In the late thirteenth century, English scholar Roger Bacon recorded in his Compendium Studii Philosophiae that in parts of southern Italy the clergy and people remained entirely Greek, while a contemporary Old French chronicler similarly observed that the peasantry of Calabria spoke exclusively Greek.[50] In 1368, Petrarch advised a student to travel to Calabria to study Greek among native speakers.[50]

Latinization and modern period

[edit]
Antonio de Ferrariis (c. 1444–1517), Greek humanist from Galatone.

From the fifteenth century onward, accelerating after the Council of Trent in the sixteenth century, the Catholic Church and local feudal authorities systematically replaced the Byzantine Rite with the Latin Rite, promoting linguistic Italianization.[51][52] Humanist scholar Antonio de Ferrariis (1444–1517) of Galatone observed that the inhabitants of Gallipoli conversed in Greek and retained classical traditions.[53] Influxes of Greek refugees from the Peloponnese following the Ottoman conquest reinforced isolated linguistic pockets during the 16th and 17th centuries.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, modernization, national unifications, and compulsory Italian-medium primary schooling marginalized the language.[54] Griko was frequently stigmatized as a peasant patois; children were discouraged by parents and punished in public classrooms for speaking the dialect, leading to rapid generational shift toward standard Italian and regional Romance dialects.[55][22]

Griko cultural revival

[edit]

"We are not ashamed of our race,

Greeks we are, and we glory in it."

Antonio de Ferrariis (c. 1444–1517)[56]

A cultural revival began in Grecia Salentina during the late 19th century through the work of Vito Domenico Palumbo (1854–1918) of Calimera, who collected Griko folklore, oral poetry, and songs while re-establishing contacts with mainland Greece.[57] The linguistic research of German philologist Gerhard Rohlfs from the 1920s to the 1970s brought international academic recognition to Italiot Greek dialects. In the late 20th century, regional cultural associations, music festivals, and institutional recognition under Italian Law 482/1999 revitalized community interest in Griko identity and language maintenance.

Culture

[edit]

Music

[edit]
Griko cultural group from Salento
Example of Pizzica dance

The Griko possess an extensive oral tradition of folk music and lyric poetry. Distinctive musical forms include the Pizzica, an ancient fast-tempo courtship and healing dance connected to tarantism, and *moroloja* (funeral dirges). Griko songs are performed by traditional and neo-folk ensembles in Italy and Greece, including Canzoniere Grecanico Salentino, Ghetonia, Arakne Mediterranea, and Officina Zoè from Salento, alongside Astaki and Nistanimera from Calabria. Prominent Greek musicians including George Dalaras, Haris Alexiou, and Maria Farantouri have recorded songs in Griko.

In Melpignano, the annual Notte della Taranta festival draws over 100,000 visitors to performances of traditional Salentine music and Griko poetry.[58] The Greek group Encardia was featured in the documentary *Encardia, the Dancing Stone*, celebrating the shared musical heritage between Greece and Southern Italy.[59]

Language

[edit]

The ancestral language of the Griko forms two distinct Italiot Greek dialects:

Both dialects exhibit archaic vocabulary, phonology, and grammar derived from ancient Doric and Koine Greek, combined with Byzantine Greek syntax and heavy centuries-long lexical exchange with neighboring Romance dialects (Salentino and Calabrian).[45][60]

UNESCO classifies both varieties as severely endangered.[24] Approximately 20,000 speakers remain in Salento and fewer than 1,000 in Calabria, predominantly elderly individuals.[24] Although Law 482/1999 officially recognized the dialects, Italian remains the primary language of administrative and scholastic instruction.

Religion

[edit]
Popes of Greek descent from Rossano, Calabria: Pope John VII (c. 650–707; left) and Antipope John XVI (c. 945–1001; right).

Prior to the late Middle Ages, the Greek communities of Southern Italy adhered to the Byzantine Rite of Christianity under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, later transitioning under Roman papal authority while retaining Greek liturgical practices.[61] Several popes of the late antiquity and early medieval eras hailed from Greek communities in Calabria, notably Pope John VII and Antipope John XVI.[62]

Following the Norman conquest, Latin bishops gradually replaced Greek hierarchs. Greek liturgy was suppressed in Bova Cathedral in 1573 and in Salento by the late 17th century.[63] Today, the Griko people are Catholics who worship under the Latin Rite.

Literature

[edit]

Early Griko literature

[edit]

Between the 11th and 13th centuries, the Byzantine monastery of San Nicola di Casole near Otranto served as one of the preeminent centers of Greek learning in Western Europe. Its scriptorium produced extensive codices of classical Greek and Byzantine literature, patristic texts, and Byzantine liturgical poetry composed by hymnographers such as Nektarios of Casole.[64]

Vernacular Griko literature was preserved primarily through rich oral poetry. Central to this oral corpus are the *moroloja* (from Greek μοιρολόγια), funeral laments chanted by women during wakes, which retain classical Greek metric structures and mourning imagery.[65] In Calabria, vernacular oral literature included *strine* (rhyming songs performed during festive seasons) and fairy tales (*paramythe*), transcribed by 19th-century philologists including Domenico Comparetti and Giuseppe Morosi.[36]

Contemporary literature

[edit]

The contemporary literary tradition was inaugurated by Vito Domenico Palumbo (1854–1918) of Calimera, who compiled oral poetry, composed original lyric verse in Griko, and translated classical and modern authors into the dialect.[66] In Salento, mid- and late-20th-century authors such as Rocco Aprile, Brizio Montinaro, and Franco Corlianò expanded vernacular writing; Corlianò's poem and song "Klama" ("Andramu pai"), depicting post-war Italian emigration to Swiss and German industrial centers, achieved international acclaim through recordings by Encardia and Greek vocalists.[67]

In Calabria, literary efforts have centered on vernacular poetry, theatrical plays, and grammatical codification. Notable writers and philologists include Filippo Violi, Filippo Condemi, Angelo Maesano, and Salvino Nucera, whose works have been published in regional periodicals such as *La Zudda* and through cultural circles including the Circolo Culturale Grecanico Jalò tu Vùa.[68]

Cuisine

[edit]

The traditional gastronomy of Grecia Salentina and Bovesia is centered on Mediterranean agriculture: cereals, legumes, wild greens, and olive oil.[69]

Distinctive culinary preparations include:

  • Lestopitta and Pitta: Traditional flatbreads of the Calabrian Bovesia.
  • Ciceri e ttrìa: Fresh tagliatelle served with seasoned chickpeas and fried pasta ribbons in Salento.
  • Cranu stompatu: Hulled wheat soaked, pounded, and cooked with tomato and pecorino.
  • Sceblasti: A rustic yeast bread baked on stone hearths in Zollino, prepared with squash, olives, and onions.[69]
  • Aggute: A brioche-like Easter bread decorated with whole boiled eggs in Calabria, analogous to Greek tsoureki.
  • Cuddhure: Easter ring pastries related to Greek *koulouri*.
  • Scardateddhi: Anise-scented fried pastry rings coated in honey and sugar served at Calabrian weddings.

Notable people

[edit]
Tony Bennett's paternal family originated from the Griko village of Podargoni in Calabria.[70]
Vito Domenico Palumbo (1854–1918), scholar and poet from Calimera

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ "Unione dei comuni della Grecia Salentina – Grecia Salentina official site (in Italian)". www.comune.melpignano.le.it/melpignano-nella-grecia-salentina. Archived from the original on 2014-08-19. Retrieved 2011-01-17. La popolazione complessiva dell'Unione è di 54278 residenti così distribuiti (Dati Istat al 31° dicembre 2005. Comune Popolazione Calimera 7351 Carpignano Salentino 3868 Castrignano dei Greci 4164 Corigliano d'Otranto 5762 Cutrofiano 9250 Martano 9588 Martignano 1784 Melpignano 2234 Soleto 5551 Sternatia 2583 Zollino 2143 Totale 54278
  2. 1 2 "Delimiting the territory of the Greek linguistic minority of Messina (copy of Council deliberations)" (PDF) (in Italian). Provincia Regionale di Messina. 10 February 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-03.
  3. ↑ Brisbane, Albert; Mellen, Abigail; Stallsmith, Allaire Brisbane (2005). The European travel diaries of Albert Brisbane, 1830–1832: discovering Fourierism for America. Edwin Mellen Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-7734-6070-6. In Calabria there still exist people called Grecanici, who speak a dialect of Greek and practice the Orthodox Christian faith
  4. ↑ F. Violi, Lessico Grecanico-Italiano-Grecanico, Apodiafàzzi, Reggio Calabria, 1997.
  5. ↑ Paolo Martino, L'isola grecanica dell'Aspromonte. Aspetti sociolinguistici, 1980. Risultati di un'inchiesta del 1977
  6. ↑ Filippo Violi, Storia degli studi e della letteratura popolare grecanica, C.S.E. Bova (RC), 1992
  7. ↑ Filippo Condemi, Grammatica Grecanica, Coop. Contezza, Reggio Calabria, 1987;
  8. ↑ In Salento e Calabria le voci della minoranza linguistica greca | Treccani, il portale del sapere
  9. ↑ Bornträger, Ekkehard W. (1999). Borders, ethnicity, and national self-determination. Braumüller. p. 16. ISBN 978-3-7003-1241-3. ... the process of socio-cultural alienation is still much further advanced those ethnic groups that are not (or only "symbolically") protected. This also applies to the southern Italian Grecanici (ethnic Greeks), who at least cannot complain of any lack of linguistic publicity.
  10. ↑ Pardo-de-Santayana, Manuel; Pieroni, Andrea; Puri, Rajindra K. (2010). Ethnobotany in the new Europe: people, health, and wild plant resources. Berghahn Books. pp. 173–174. ISBN 978-1-84545-456-2. The ethnic Greek minorities living in southern Italy today exemplify the establishment of independent and permanent colonial settlements of Greeks in history.
  11. 1 2 Bekerman Zvi; Kopelowitz, Ezra (2008). Cultural education – cultural sustainability: minority, diaspora, indigenous, and ethno-religious groups in multicultural societies. Routledge. p. 390. ISBN 978-0-8058-5724-5. Griko Milume - This reaction was even more pronounced in the southern Italian communities of Greek origins. There are two distinct clusters, in Apulia and Calabria, which have managed to preserve their language, Griko or Grecanico, all through the historical events that have shaped Italy. While being Italian citizens, they are actually aware of their Greek roots and again the defense of their language is the key to their identity.
  12. 1 2 Danver, Steven L. (2015). Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues. Routledge. p. 316. ISBN 978-1-317-46400-6. Some 46,000 ethnic Greeks in Italy are descendants of the Greek settlers that colonized Sicily and southern Italy up to the Gulf of Naples in antiquity. At that time, most of the Greek population lived in what is now Italian territory, in areas of settlement that were referred to as Magna Graecia or "Greater Greece." Of the modern Greeks living in that region, only about one-third still speak Greek, while the rest have adopted Italian as their first language.
  13. 1 2 Hardy, Paula; Hole, Abigail; Pozzan, Olivia (2008). Puglia & Basilicata. Lonely Planet. pp. 153–154. ISBN 978-1-74179-089-4. THE GREEK SALENTINE – The Greek Salentine is a historical oddity, left over from a time when the Byzantine Empire controlled southern Italy and Greek culture was the order of the day. It is a cluster of nine towns – Calimera, Castrignano dei Greci, Corigliano d'Otranto, Martano, Martignano, Melpignano, Soleto, Sternatia and Zollino – in the heart of Terra d'Otranto. Why this pocket of Apulia has retained its Greek heritage is not altogether clear.
  14. ↑ Sakalis, Alex (14 February 2024). "'Teli na cusi tin glossa grika?'". Kathimerini. Retrieved 25 March 2025.
  15. ↑ Sarno, S.; Petrilli, R.; Abondio, P.; De Giovanni, A.; Boattini, A.; Sazzini, M.; De Fanti, S.; Cilli, E.; Ciani, G.; Gentilini, D.; Pettener, D.; Romeo, G.; Giuliani, C.; Luiselli, D. (2021), "Genetic history of Calabrian Greeks reveals ancient events and long term isolation in the Aspromonte area of Southern Italy", Scientific Reports, 11 (1): 3045, Bibcode:2021NatSR..11.3045S, doi:10.1038/s41598-021-82591-9, PMC 7862261, PMID 33542324
  16. 1 2 3 Commission of the European Communities, Istituto della Enciclopedia italiana (1986). Linguistic minorities in countries belonging to the European community: summary report. Commission of the European Communities. p. 87. ISBN 978-92-825-5850-8. In Italy, Greek (known locally as Griko) is spoken today in two small linguistic islands of southern Italy ... The dialects of these two linguistic islands correspond for the most part, as regards morphology, phonetics, syntax and lexis to the neoclassical dialects of Greece, but they also present some interesting archaic characteristics. This has led to much discussion on the origins of the Greek-speaking community in southern Italy: according to some scholars (G. Morosi and C. Battisti), Greek in this area is not a direct continuation of the ancient Greek community but is due to Byzantine domination (535–1071); whereas for other scholars (Rohlfs, etc.), the Greek community of southern Italy is directly linked to the community of Magna Grecia.
  17. ↑ Morosi, Giuseppe (1870). Sui dialetti greci della terra d'Otranto. Lecce: Editrice Salentina. OCLC 610333215.
  18. ↑ Hatzidakis, Georgios N. (1892). Einleitung in die neugriechische Grammatik. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel. pp. 47–49. OCLC 457805177.
  19. ↑ Rohlfs, Gerhard (1924). Griechen und Romanen in Unteritalien: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Unteritalienischen Griechen. Geneva: L.S. Olschki. OCLC 490403164.
  20. ↑ Douri, Angeliki; De Santis, Dario (2015). "Griko and Modern Greek in Grecia Salentina: an overview". L'Idomeneo (19): 187–198. doi:10.1285/I20380313V19P187.
  21. ↑ Jaeger, Werner Wilhelm (1960). Scripta minora, Volume 2. Edizioni di storia e letteratura. p. 361. OCLC 311270347. It began to dwindle in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries when the South became more and more Italianized and the Greek civilization of Calabria no longer found moral and political support in Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire.
  22. 1 2 Calcagno, Anne; Morris, Jan (2001). Travelers' Tales Italy: True Stories. Travelers' Tales. p. 319. ISBN 978-1-885211-72-9. OCLC 48148906. Mass media has steadily eroded the Grecanico language and culture, which the Italian government — despite Article 6 of the Italian Constitution that mandates the preservation of ethnic minorities — does little to protect.
  23. ↑ Genetic history of Calabrian Greeks reveals ancient events and long term isolation in the Aspromonte area of Southern Italy "Comparisons with modern and ancient populations highlighted ancient, long-lasting genetic links with Eastern Mediterranean and Caucasian/Near-Eastern groups as ancestral sources of Southern Italians. Our results suggest that the Aspromonte communities might be interpreted as genetically drifted remnants that departed from such ancient genetic background as a consequence of long-term isolation."
  24. 1 2 3 Moseley, Christopher (2007). Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages. Routledge. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-7007-1197-0. Griko (also called Italiot Greek) Italy: spoken in the Salento peninsula in Lecce Province in southern Apulia and in a few villages near Reggio di Calabria in southern Calabria. Griko is an outlying dialect of Greek largely deriving from Byzantine times. The Salentine dialect is still used relatively widely, and there may be a few child speakers, but a shift to South Italian has proceeded rapidly, and active speakers tend to be over fifty years old. The Calabrian dialect is only used more actively in the village of Gaddhiciano, but even there youngest speakers are over thirty years old. The number of speakers lies in the range of 20,000. South Italian influence has been strong for a long time. Severely Endangered.
  25. ↑ Safran, L. The Medieval Salento: Art and Identity in Southern Italy, p. 215. 2014.
  26. 1 2 Marcato, Gianna (2008). L'Italia dei dialetti: atti del convegno, Sappada/ Plodn (Belluno), 27 giugno-1 luglio 2007. Unipress. p. 299. ISBN 978-88-8098-242-5.
  27. ↑ Cazzato, Mario; Costantini, Antonio (1996). Grecia Salentina: Arte, Cultura e Territorio. Congedo Editore. p. 313. ISBN 88-8086-118-2. Estensione della lingua greca verso la fine del secolo XVIII
  28. 1 2 The Academy, Volume 4. J. Murray – Princeton University. 1873. p. 198. Greek was also heard at Melpignano, Curse, Caprarica, Cannole, Cutrofiano, and at a more remote period at Galatina.
  29. 1 2 3 Cazzato, Mario; Costantini, Antonio (1996). Grecia Salentina: Arte, Cultura e Territorio. Congedo Editore. p. 34. ISBN 88-8086-118-2. 49. Variazione territoriale della Grecía Salentina (da B. Spano)
  30. ↑ Loud, G. A.; Metcalfe, Alex (2002). The society of Norman Italy. BRILL. pp. 215–216. ISBN 978-90-04-12541-4. In Calabria, a Greek-speaking population existed in Aspromonte (even until recently, a small Greek-language community survived around Bova) and, even in the thirteenth century, this extended into the plain beyond Aspromonte and into present provinces of Catanzaro and Cosenza.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Lüdtke, Karen (2009). Dances with spiders: crisis, celebrity and celebration in southern Italy. Berghahn Books. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-84545-445-6. The towns of the Grecia Salentina include: Calimera, Carpignano Salentino, Castrignano dei Greci, Corigliano d'Otranto, Cutrofiano, Martano, Martignano, Melpignano, Soleto, Sternatia and Zollino.
  32. 1 2 3 Philological Society (Great Britain) (1968). Transactions of the Philological Society. Published for the Society by B. Blackwell. p. 493. OCLC 185468004.
  33. ↑ Franco Corlianò: Griko-Italiano Italiano-Griko, Vocabolario. San Cesario di Lecce 2010
  34. 1 2 Don Mauro Cassoni: Griko-Italiano, Vocabolario. Lecce 1999
  35. ↑ Bellinello, Pier Francesco (1998). Minoranze etniche e linguistiche. Bios. p. 53. ISBN 978-88-7740-121-2.
  36. 1 2 3 Comparetti, Domenico (1866). Saggi dei dialetti greci dell' Italia meridionale. Pisa: Fratelli Nistri. pp. vii–viii. OCLC 457319985.
  37. 1 2 3 Stamuli, Maria Francesca (2008). Morte di lingua e variazione lessicale nel greco di Calabria. Tre profili dalla Bovesìa. Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II. pp. 12–14. OCLC 499021399.
  38. ↑ Touring club italiano (1980). Basilicata Calabria. Touring Editore. p. 652. ISBN 978-88-365-0021-5.
  39. ↑ Bellinello, Pier Francesco (1998). Minoranze etniche e linguistiche. Bios. p. 54. ISBN 978-88-7740-121-2.
  40. ↑ Law no. 482 of 1999 Archived 2015-05-12 at the Wayback Machine: "La Repubblica tutela la lingua e la cultura delle popolazioni albanesi, catalane, germaniche, greche, slovene e croate..."
  41. ↑ Gert Jan van Wijngaarden, Use and Appreciation of Mycenaean Pottery in the Levant, Cyprus and Italy (1600–1200 BC), Amsterdam University Press, 2001.
  42. ↑ David Ridgway, The First Western Greeks, Cambridge University Press, 1993.
  43. 1 2 Michael J. Bennett; Aaron J. Paul; Mario Iozzo (2002). Magna Graecia: Greek art from south Italy and Sicily. Hudson Hills. pp. 1–15. ISBN 978-0-940717-71-8.
  44. ↑ Charanis, Peter (1946). "On the Question of the Hellenization of Sicily and Southern Italy During the Middle Ages". The American Historical Review. 52 (1): 74–86. doi:10.2307/1845070. JSTOR 1845070.
  45. 1 2 3 Browning, Robert (1983). Medieval and Modern Greek. Cambridge University Press. pp. 131–132. ISBN 978-0-521-29978-7. There are now only two tiny enclaves of Greek speech in southern Italy... When the Byzantine immigrants arrived they found a Greek-speaking peasantry still settled on the land in some areas, whose speech was an independent development of the vernacular of Magna Graecia...
  46. ↑ T. S. Brown, "The Church of Ravenna and the Imperial Administration in the Seventh Century," The English Historical Review, 1979, p. 5.
  47. ↑ Loud, G. A. (2007). The Latin Church in Norman Italy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 126–129, 494. ISBN 978-0-521-25551-6.
  48. ↑ Oldfield, Paul (2014). Sanctity and Pilgrimage in Medieval Southern Italy, 1000–1200. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-107-00028-5.
  49. ↑ Kleinhenz, Christopher (2004). Medieval Italy: an encyclopedia, Volume 1. Routledge. pp. 444–445. ISBN 978-0-415-93930-0.
  50. 1 2 Vasil'ev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1971). History of the Byzantine Empire. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 718. ISBN 978-0-299-80926-3.
  51. ↑ Horrocks, Geoffrey (2010). Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers. Wiley. p. 389. ISBN 978-1-405-13415-6.
  52. ↑ Weiss, Roberto (1977). Medieval and Humanist Greek. Antenore. pp. 14–16. ISBN 978-88-8455-006-4.
  53. ↑ Vakalopoulos, Apostolos Euangelou (1976). The Greek nation, 1453–1669. Rutgers University Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-8135-0810-8.
  54. ↑ Pipyrou, Stavroula (2016). The Grecanici of Southern Italy: Governance, Violence, and Minority Politics. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 45–48. ISBN 978-0-8122-4830-2. OCLC 950955370.
  55. ↑ Pellegrino, Manuela (2018). "Griko as a Heritage Language in Salento: Language Ideologies and Practices". Journal of Modern Greek Studies. 36 (2): 317–346. doi:10.1353/mgs.2018.0020.
  56. ↑ Smith, George (1881). The Cornhill Magazine. Vol. 44. Smith, Elder. p. 726.
  57. ↑ Ashworth, Georgina (1980). World minorities in the eighties. Quartermaine House. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-905898-11-7.
  58. ↑ Horner, Rosalie (August 28, 2017). "Night of the Taranta: Italy's wild musical festival". The Guardian. Retrieved September 14, 2026.
  59. ↑ Tsatsou, Marianna (April 22, 2012). "Charity Concert Collects Medicine and Milk Instead of Selling Tickets". Greek Reporter. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
  60. ↑ Horrocks, Geoffrey (2010). Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers. Wiley. pp. 381–383. ISBN 978-1-405-13415-6.
  61. ↑ Zchomelidse, Nino (2014). Art, Ritual, and Civic Identity in Medieval Southern Italy. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-05973-0.
  62. ↑ Murzaku, Ines Angeli (2009). Returning home to Rome: the Basilian monks of Grottaferrata in Albania. Analekta Kryptoferris. p. 47. ISBN 978-88-89345-04-7.
  63. ↑ Levillain, Philippe (2002). The Papacy: Gaius-Proxies. Routledge. pp. 638–639. ISBN 978-0-415-92230-2.
  64. ↑ Safran, Linda (2014). The Medieval Salento: Art and Identity in Southern Italy. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 18–24. ISBN 978-0-8122-4554-7.
  65. ↑ Tommasi, Salvatore (2008). Canti di pianto e d'amore nella Grecìa Salentina. Lecce: Argo. ISBN 978-88-8234-386-6.
  66. ↑ Aprile, Rocco (1984). Vito Domenico Palumbo e la rinascita grecanica. Cavallino: Capone Editore. OCLC 166115965.
  67. ↑ Corlianò, Franco (2010). Griko-Italiano Italiano-Griko, Vocabolario. San Cesario di Lecce: Capone. ISBN 978-88-8349-130-6.
  68. ↑ Violi, Filippo (1992). Storia degli studi e della letteratura popolare grecanica. Reggio Calabria: C.S.E. Bova. OCLC 31154564.
  69. 1 2 Madre, Terra (2007). Terra Madre: 1,600 Food Communities. Slow Food Editore. p. 381. ISBN 978-88-8499-118-8.
  70. 1 2 Evanier, David (2011). All the Things You Are: The Life of Tony Bennett. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-1-118-03354-8.
  71. ↑ Hatzantonis, Emmanuel (1967-12-01). "Luigi Pirandello, Kostas Uranis, E La Grecia". Forum Italicum. 1 (4): 336–344. doi:10.1177/001458586700100411.
[edit]
  • Enosi Griko, Coordination of Grecìa Salentina Associations
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