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Fourth voyage of Columbus

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Fourth voyage of Columbus
Columbus lands in the New World in 1492
Landing of Columbus by John Vanderlyn, 1847
SponsorCatholic Monarchs
CountryCastile or Aragon
LeaderChristopher Columbus
StartCádiz
6–11 May 1502 (1502-05)
EndSanlúcar de Barrameda
7 November 1504 (1504-11-07)
GoalTo discover a western maritime route to the Far East
Ships
  • Capitana
  • Santiago
  • Gallego
  • Vizcaíno[i]
Crew138–152 men[ii]
Fatalities33–34 men[iii]
Achievements
Route

The fourth voyage of Columbus[v] was a Spanish maritime expedition of discovery in 1502 to 1504 to the western Caribbean coast of Central America, led by Christopher Columbus and commissioned by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain. The voyage, Columbus's last, was meant to find a western maritime route to the Far East. The journey failed to locate such passage, returned relatively little profit, and further resulted in the deaths of about a fifth of the fleet's company, loss of all four of its ships, and a year-long marooning in Jamaica from mid-1503. It is considered the non-Amerindian discovery of mainland Middle America, and one of the first non-Amerindian, non-Norse discoveries of continental North America, after its original peopling and later Norse settlement.

Columbus reached mainland in mid-1502, and spent the next ten months coasting southwards in the Bay of Honduras and Mosquito Gulf, along what is now Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. This leg notably involved first contact with various Amerindian peoples, possibly including the Maya civilisation, and ended when open hostilities broke out with Quibían, a cacique whose cacicazgo lay near the Belen River of modern Panama. The closing leg, a stranding in Jamaica, was prolonged by political tensions between the admiral and the governor of La Española, Nicolás de Ovando. It notably involved a widespread mutiny that required armed conflict to suppress, and a lunar eclipse that was used by Columbus to gain Taino aid.[14]

Background

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Upon landing at Nueva Isabela in August, inquisitor Francisco de Bobadilla had Columbus and his brother arrested (shown) and transported back home by October 1500 (1594 de Bry sketch)

Christopher Columbus returned to Nueva Isabela, on Rio Ozama in La Española, upon completing his third voyage in 1500. The admiral and governor, whose relationship with local vecinos had been long strained by then, soon found himself on remand in Cádiz, awaiting an audience before the Catholic Monarchs to answer for alleged offences against the Spanish crown. His defence proved good enough to earn him his freedom,[15] but not a reinstatement as governor of La Española, in which office he had first been replaced by juez pesquisidor ('inquisitor'[16]) Francisco de Bobadilla, and who would soon be succeeded by Nicolás de Ovando in 1502.

Upon his release from jail on 17 December 1500, Columbus set about planning what he proposed would be "his most significant, most profitable expedition yet".[17] The recent Portuguese discovery of an eastern sea lane to "the opulent East", by Vasco da Gama in 1497 to 1499, had steeled the admiral's resolve to find a shorter, more direct western route to the same (to Cathay, Cipangu and La Especiería in the Far East, and to the neighbouring East Indies).[1] Consequently, on 26 February 1502, Columbus petitioned the crown for a capitulación[vi] to embark on a fourth voyage to the western half of the North Sea.[1] Passage to the east, he figured, might lie farther west than anyone had prior sailed.[1] The project being deemed feasible and desirable, the Catholic Monarchs granted his petition on 14 March.[19] The royal licence approved the disbursement of some 10,000 gold pesos[vii] for fitting out a fleet, appointed Francisco de Porras as comptroller of spoils, and Diego de Porras as auditor and crown representative, and forbade the enslavement of Amerindians, among further terms and conditions.[7] Columbus enlisted Diego Tristán to captain his flagship La Capitana, Francisco de Porras for El Santiago de Palos, Pedro de Terreros for El Gallego, and Bartolomeo Fieschi for El Vizcaíno.[20]

Some 140 men and ship's boys were recruited to crew Columbus's fleet of four ships.[7] By 28 April, upon finalising all preparations for his trip, the admiral reported an outlay of 2,259,239 maravedis, primarily on wages, rent, equipment and provisions.[21]

Voyage

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Columbus had lived through two hurricanes (at sea in 1494, in Isabela in 1495; shown) when a third hurricane struck Nueva Isabela in July 1502 (1594 de Bry sketch)

The Columbian fleet set sail from Cádiz on 9 May 1502.[7] After a brief detour to Arzila, on the Barbary Coast, which Ferdinand II had requested, the fleet called at El Hierro, in the Canary Islands, to revictual.[7] They next stopped in Martinique, after a transatlantic crossing of 21 days, the fastest one of Columbus's career.[7]

Once his crew were rested and his ships repaired, the admiral departed from the Lesser Antilles, setting course due west.[7] Though his capitulación[vi] barred Columbus from landing in La Española during the opening leg of his voyage, towards the end of June, the explorer nonetheless dropped anchor just off the mouth of Río Ozama, intending to request an emergency exemption to the said stipulation, so as to shelter his fleet in the port of Nueva Isabela, fearing that a hurricane was brewing and would soon strike the Greater Antilles.[7] Not convinced by said plea, governor de Ovando denied the admiral's request and required the ships to clear the harbour.[7] Columbus's fears soon proved well-founded though, as a "massive hurricane" next landed on the Spanish settlement and island in early July, one which the Columbian fleet weathered reasonably well, having secured shelter in some nearby anchorage, possibly off Río Jaina, just a few miles west of Ozama.[7]

On 15 July, once the storm had passed and any damage been repaired, Columbus set off downwind from La Española.[22] The fleet stopped briefly in Isla de Pinos, just off Isla Juana, then picked up some stiff northeasterlies and sailed due southwest.[23]

Mainland

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Maya coastal village (top) and laden merchant canoes (bottom) on trade routes skirting Yucatan in the Maya Lowlands (Postclassic mural in Chichen Itza; 1931 Morris sketch)
Local Amerindian ritual feast in 16th century Spanish Nicaragua (1594 de Bry sketch)
Quimbaya artefacts of gold recovered from the inner Mosquito Gulf (now in the Pre-Columbian Gold Museum in San José, Costa Rica)

The Columbian fleet sighted land on 30 July 1502, in what would later become the Bay of Honduras, and came upon an island which Columbus dubbed Isla de Pinos, later rechristened by the Spanish as Guanaxa.[23] Shortly upon stopping here, an Amerindian canoe, richly laden in merchandise, approached their anchorage.[23] Noting that the laden goods were "all of a quality superior to what they had seen before" in the New World, the Spaniards forced a trade, bartering the local merchant's ceramics, dyed cotton textiles, flint-edged swords and copper hatchets for "the usual baubles" from the Old World.[23] This merchant canoe is thought to have hailed from some nearby port in the Maya Lowlands, leading some later historians and Mayanist scholars to identify the same as a Maya vessel, thereby making this chance encounter the first contact between the Maya civilisation and a non-Amerindian people.[29]

After impressing the canoe's elderly skipper, Columbus weighed anchor and carried on southwards, reaching a small peninsula (named Punta Caxinas[viii] by the admiral) which abutted the bay of what would later be Truxillo.[23] The ships were anchored in the lee of said cape, whereupon the Spanish explorers "made the first landing on the mainland of North America",[23] this being the earliest instance any non-Amerindian people coming onto continental Middle America, and the first in the continent since Norse arrival.[30] The Columbian expedition carried on to the east, and next reached the nearby Río Romano, where "Columbus took formal possession" of the newly discovered (to them) lands on 17 August.[23] The weather, which now beset them with strong headwinds and fierce rain, prolonged the fleet's southeasterly leg to Cabo Gracias a Dios (lit. 'Cape Thank God'), so christened because when they rounded it on 14 September, and thus entered what would later be the Mosquito Gulf, the weather suddenly improved as if by divine providence.[23]

On 16 September, two days after rounding Gracias a Dios, the fleet anchored just off a large estuary to the south, "probably the Rio Grande", with surf so strong it swamped one of the vessels, causing two crewmates to drown and die.[23] On 25 September, they moored in a natural harbour in what is now Limón, Costa Rica, and again sought to barter with the locals, who were probably Talamancans, further impressing two of them to help with Amerindian language translations.[23] On 5 October, they entered Bahía del Almirante, to the lee side of what are now the Bocas del Toro islands, where Columbus "found the first sign of fine gold, which an Indian wore like a large medal on his breast".[23] The Spanish men next anchored in the neighbouring Laguna de Chiriquí, which their pressed Talamancan interpreters informed them was a nine days' march (across the isthmus) from Ciguare, a rich land which lay on another ocean (the South Sea).[23] Columbus mistook the Talamancans to mean Ciamba, in the Far East, but the renewed hope of a passage to the east apparently did nothing for the admiral, who by this point in his expedition had seemingly given up on the search, having had no luck so far, and chosen instead to focus on trading for gold, which the lagoon's locals seemed to have in fine specimens.[23]

The Spanish ships put out on 17 October, heading east of Chiriquí, and next sighted the local Amerindian settlement of Veragua, which their local guides[ix] identified as a renowned source of gold.[23] At this point though, a storm blew the fleet eastwards to Porto Bello, and then farther east to Nombre de Dios, where the crew now dropped anchor to repair the damage.[31] To their misfortune, the weather only worsened, as tempest-force winds and currents now battered the ships back and forth between Porto Bello and Río Chagres.[32] Conditions finally improved on 3 January 1503, allowing the Spanish to sail back west for Río Belén, where they anchored some days later.[32] From said Belén anchorage, Columbus now led an exploratory party up said river, while his brother Bartholomew led another detachment to Río Veragua.[32]

In February, "the Spanish put up ten or twelve houses on the west bank of the river" of Belén, thereby founding Santa María de Belén.[32] This soon proved an unwelcome development amongst the locals though, with whom relations quickly soured to the point of open hostilities.[32] Seeking to stave off an armed assault, Columbus authorised the abduction of cacique Quibían, and his family and principal subordinates.[32] The pre-emptive strike, led by Bartholomew and eighty men, proved both successful and profitable, netting the expeditionaries "a good deal of gold".[32] The cacique soon managed to escape however, and responded with a force of some four hundred infantry from his cacicazgo.[32] Though the Columbian crew managed to repel the attack, they suffered twelve fatal and several non-fatal casualties.[34] Growing convinced of Santa María's untenable situation, Columbus now deemed it prudent to abandon his colonial project.[35] Consequently, on 16 April, all ships but the now-decommissioned Gallego set off due east, with Diego Méndez succeeding the recently killed in action Diego Tristán as captain of the flagship Capitana.[35] After scuttling the now-unseaworthy Vizcaíno at Porto Bello, the now-halved fleet reached a headland, probably Punta Mosquito in the Gulf of Darien, and set off northwards on 1 May.[35]

Antilles

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Columbus used a lunar eclipse in 1504 (shown) to trick the Taino of St Ann's into helping him (1881 Flammarion sketch)
Columbus (right) had to engage de Porras (left) to quell their mutiny in 1504 (1594 de Bry sketch)

The Columbian fleet, reduced now to the Capitana and Santiago, both already in a sorry state, dropped anchor in Jardines de la Reina, just off Isla Juana, on 12 May 1503.[35] That week proved especially disastrous for the leaky caravels, and taxing for the crew.[35] With "ships pierced by borers worse than a honeycomb, the people spiritless and desperate", they carried on southeastwards to Jamaica, reaching Saint Ann's Bay, just off the modern town of the same name, on 25 June.[35] Being now indisputably beyond repair, Columbus condemned both caravels and had them beached for break up, thus marooning himself and the remaining company of 116 men for what would prove to be a year-long odyssey.[36]

Columbus set about securing a vessel to send to Nueva Isabela for their rescue. That July 1503, he enlisted his captains Méndez and Fieschi, twelve crewmates, and twenty Taino rowers to attempt the daring crossing of the Jamaica Channel aboard dugout canoes in two flotillas.[35] In three days' time, both parties reached Navassa Island, where several rowers died or fell very ill of dehydration.[35] Despite these odds, the survivors made the rest of the crossing to La Española in one day's time.[35] Upon reaching Jaragua though, the captains were promptly apprehended and detained by governor de Ovando, and so did not reach the port capital until March 1504.[35] Their luck there did not improve though, as de Ovando now denied them the use of a small caravel for the needed rescue to the west, further prolonging the Columbian crew's marooning.[37]

In the meantime, back in Saint Ann's, as it grew increasingly evident that no relief was forthcoming from the neighbouring Spanish island, the stranded crew's discontent festered until 2 January 1504, when brothers Francisco and Diego de Porras started a mutiny of 48 men.[4] The mutineers fled ashore and marched towards the eastern end of Jamaica, much to the misfortune of any Taino settlements they crossed.[4] In a similar vein, the Spanish in Saint Ann's now began overstaying their welcome, with the neighbouring Taino supplying markedly fewer provisions by February.[4] Columbus had this sorted out in short order though, as during the total lunar eclipse of the night of 29 February to 1 March, he gathered an audience of local caciques and successfully convinced them that the moon's darkening was a sign of divine disapproval of their recent reticence.[4] The de Porras brothers reached their destination as this happened, and like Méndez and Fieschi, also attempted to cross the channel for La Española, but failed both times and so were forced to march back to Saint Ann's by the end of March.[4] A skirmish broke out on their arrival though, and it was won by the admiral and his crew, such that the insubordinate brothers were there arrested and charged with mutiny, though their followers were eventually pardoned.[4] Finally, on 29 June, a rescue caravel from Nueva Isabela arrived at Saint Ann's, picked up the reunited Columbian crew, and brought them to the Spanish port, which they reached on 13 August.[4]

On 12 September, Columbus, his son Ferdinand, his brother Bartholomew, and 22 crewmates departed Nueva Isabela as passengers on two outgoing caravels, reaching Sanlúcar de Barrameda on 7 November 1504.[4] In Seville, the admiral informed Spanish authorities that the gold he had set aside for the quinto real, currently in his caravel's hold and soon due in port, had been prior adulterated without his connivance, for which intelligence he then claimed his lawful cut of the said earmarked cargo.[38]

Aftermath

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Columbus's hopes to the contrary, this expedition proved to be "the least profitable and most dangerous of all his voyages", the admiral having found no passage to the Far East, returned a meagre profit to the Spanish crown, lost many men and all four ships, and suffered a year's marooning in Jamaica.[1] The post-voyage debriefing of the Catholic Monarchs was precluded by the death of Isabella I on 26 November 1504.[39] Instead, Columbus presented the expedition's negative results only to Ferdinand II that December in Segovia, with the latter proving less than thrilled, as the explorer reportedly "received nothing" from said king.[41]

Legacy

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Bronze of a romanticised Columbus and a local Amerindian girl in modern Colón, Panama

Five first-hand accounts of this voyage survive, namely those by Columbus himself, his son Ferdinand (on the Capitana), the Porras brothers (the Santiago), Pedro de Ledesma (the Vizcaíno), and Diego Méndez (on the Santiago).[43] Sixteenth century second-hand accounts in crónicas de Indias include one by Bartolomé de las Casas,[44] and another by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo.[45] The itineraries described in these sources, however, do not perfectly concur, resulting in discrepancies within historical literature.[46] For instance, historian Miles H. Davidson describes the Ferdinand and de las Casas accounts as both the most influential ones generally, and also so inaccurate or distorted as to make ascertaining fact from fiction "the most difficult task for the Columbus" scholar today.[47] They further note that primary and secondary sources on this voyage disagree on "most of the dates" they provide, citing as an example the date of departure from Cádiz, which is "reported differently by all participants".[51]

In culture

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The 1492 Capitulaciones de Santa Fe had secured for Columbus and his heirs a number of privileges concerning lands discovered and formally possessed by him.[52] As the admiral discovered and formally possessed continental lands during his fourth voyage, rather than merely insular ones, a dispute soon arose regarding the extent of mainland to which the Santa Fe privileges applied.[53] In 1508, this resulted in the protracted Pleitos Colombinos, wherein Columbus's son and heir Diego sued the Spanish crown for recognition of his inherited Santa Fe privileges, alleging they appertained to large tracts of mainland Middle America by dint of their discovery and possession by his father during his fourth voyage.[54]

Itinerary

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The following is an abbreviated timeline of the fourth voyage of Columbus, as detailed above.[59]

  • 26 February 1502: Columbus petitions the Spanish crown for a carta de privilegio[x] o capitulación[vi] to embark on a fourth voyage to the New World.
  • 4 March 1502: In Seville, Columbus commissions vessels for his fleet.
  • 14 March 1502: In Valencia de la Torre, Columbus's petition is granted when cartas de privilegio[x] o capitulaciones[vi] are issued.
  • 3 April 1502: The fleet depart from Seville.
  • 6 May 1502–11 May 1502: The fleet depart from Cádiz.
  • 20 May 1502: The fleet arrive in Gran Canaria.
  • 25 May 1502–26 May 1502: The fleet depart from El Hierro.
  • 15 June 1502–16 June 1502: The fleet arrive in Martinique.
  • 29 June 1502: The fleet arrive in Hispaniola.
  • 30 June 1502: In Hispaniola, the fleet weather a hurricane.
  • 3 July 1502: The fleet arrive at Ocoa Bay, just off Río Ocoa.
  • 14 July 1502–15 July 1502: The fleet depart from Ocoa Bay.
  • 30 July 1502: The fleet arrive in Guanaxa.
  • 14 August 1502–17 August 1502: The fleet arrive at Río Romano.
  • 14 September 1502: The fleet round Cabo Gracias a Dios.
  • 16 September 1502: The fleet arrive at Río Grande.
  • 25 September 1502: The fleet arrive at Puerto Limón.
  • 5 October 1502: The fleet arrive at Almirante Bay, within the Bocas del Toro islands.
  • 6 October 1502: The fleet arrive at Chiriquí Lagoon.
  • 16 October 1502–17 October 1502: The fleet depart from Chiriquí Lagoon.
  • 2 November 1502: The fleet arrive at Porto Bello.
  • 10 November 1502: The fleet arrive at Nombre de Dios Bay, just off Nombre de Dios.
  • 23 November 1502: The fleet depart from Nombre de Dios Bay.
  • 17 December 1502: The fleet arrive at Bahía Limón.
  • 25 December 1502–26 December 1502: The fleet arrive (again) at Bahía Limón.
  • 3 January 1503: The fleet depart from Bahía Limón.
  • 6 January 1503: The fleet arrive at Río Belén.
  • 6 February 1503: In Río Belén, Columbus despatches a party to explore area.[61]
  • 16 April 1503: The fleet depart from Río Belén.
  • 1 May 1503: The fleet depart from some unidentified point on the mainland, possibly Punta Mosquito.
  • 12 May 1503: The fleet arrive at Jardines de la Reina.
  • 20 May 1503: The fleet depart from Jardines de la Reina.
  • 23 June 1503: The fleet arrive at Saint Ann's Bay, just off the eponymous town, and are marooned.
  • 2 January 1504: In Saint Ann's, some of the crew start a mutiny.
  • 29 February 1504: In Saint Ann's, Columbus and some local caciques observe a lunar eclipse.
  • 19 May 1504–20 May 1504: In Saint Ann's, the crew's mutiny is suppressed or ends.
  • 28 June 1504–29 June 1504: The fleet depart from Saint Ann's.
  • 3 August 1504–13 August 1504: The fleet arrive at Nueva Isabela.
  • 12 September 1504: The fleet depart from Nueva Isabela.
  • 7 November 1504: The fleet arrive at Sanlúcar de Barrameda.

The following table lists itineraries for the fourth voyage of Columbus, as described in five first and second-hand accounts of the trip. From left to right, the accounts covered below are those of the Porras brothers, Christopher Columbus, Ferdinand Columbus, de Ledesma, and de las Casas.[63]

Ships

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The following table lists the four vessels which composed the fleet for the fourth voyage of Columbus.[68]

See also

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Notes and references

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ↑ See ships here for details.
  2. ↑ Including ship's boys. Excluding pressed Amerindian crew.
  3. ↑ Excluding Amerindian deaths.
  4. ↑ Contested; see mainland here for details.
  5. ↑ Also last for fourth, expedition for voyage, and several variations on of Columbus, like Columbian or Columbus's. Dubbed El Alto Viaje by Columbus.[1]
  6. 1 2 3 4 'Letters patent by the Spanish crown authorising an expedition of discovery or conquest'.[18]
  7. ↑ Possibly meaning gold specie worth 10,000 pesos, or else that sum in pesos de oro or de mina, or in excelentes.
  8. ↑ Now Punta Castilla, Cabo de Honduras or Cabo Honduras. See Cabo Honduras [es].
  9. ↑ Pressed Amerindian crew, or voluntary Amerindian guides.
  10. 1 2 'Real cedula by the Spanish crown conferring a privilege'.[60]
  11. ↑ Route according to Francisco and Diego de Porras.
  12. ↑ Route according to Christopher Columbus.
  13. ↑ Route according to Ferdinand Columbus.
  14. ↑ Route according to Pedro de Ledesma.
  15. ↑ Route according to Bartolomé de las Casas.
  16. ↑ For Ferdinand, these were islands near Jamaica.[48]
  17. 1 2 3 4 Identified in [49]. For the Porras, Guanaxa was smaller than nearby Bay Islands.[49] For Ferdinand, it was larger than them.[48]
  18. 1 2 3 Identified in [48] as Cape Honduras, Cabo de Honduras or Cabo Honduras. See Cabo Honduras [es]. For the Porras, this peninsula was 70 leagues from Gracias a Dios.[64]
  19. ↑ Identified in [23] as Río Romano or de la Posesión in western Honduras.
  20. ↑ For the Porras, this cape was 12 leagues from Río del Desastre.[64]
  21. ↑ For the Porras, this island was 15 leagues from Aburemá.[64]
  22. ↑ For the Porras, this peninsula was 28 leagues from Ysla de Escudo, and 35 leagues from Puerto de Bastimentos.[64]
  23. 1 2 3 Identified in [23].
  24. 1 2 3 4 Possibly Bastimentos.
  25. ↑ Identified in [32]. For the admiral, this entry logs a return arrival to Puerto Gordo, but no first arrival is logged.[65]
  26. ↑ Exluding those formed by dropping a definite article, as in Vizcaína from La Vizcaína.
  27. ↑ Either any type of vessel, or else a large ship, warship, or ship of the line.[69]
  28. ↑ Also pilot major of the fleet.
  29. ↑ Noted at the time or in later literature.
  30. ↑ Admiral's nephew.[70]
  31. ↑ Noted in [71].
  32. ↑ Noted in [72] [73]. See Diego Méndez de Segura [es].
  33. ↑ Noted in [74].
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bedini 2000, p. 720.
  2. 1 2 Davidson 1997, p. 451.
  3. 1 2 3 Polo Martín 2015, p. 146.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Bedini 2000, p. 727.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Polo Martín 2015, p. 144.
  6. 1 2 Davidson 1997, p. 450.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Bedini 2000, p. 721.
  8. ↑ León Guerrero 2005, pp. 22, 31–32.
  9. ↑ Gil 2003, p. 614.
  10. ↑ León Guerrero 2005, pp. 24–32.
  11. 1 2 Reichert 2017, p. 13.
  12. 1 2 Hofman & Keehnen 2019, p. 239.
  13. ↑ Fernández-Armesto 1991, pp. 164, 164.
  14. ↑ In this article, Columbus and Columbian refer to Christopher Columbus only, not any of his relatives. For infobox: start in [2]; end in [3] [4]; goal in [5] [6]; ships in [7]; crew in [8] [9] [7]; fatalities in [10]; achievements in [11] [12] [13].
  15. ↑ And his brother's.
  16. ↑ "Juez pesquisidor". Diccionario panhispánico del español jurídico.
  17. ↑ In [5] [1].
  18. ↑ "Capitulación". Diccionario panhispánico del español jurídico.
  19. ↑ Bedini 2000, pp. 720–721.
  20. ↑ In [7]. See ships here for details.
  21. ↑ Gil 2003, p. 613.
  22. ↑ Bedini 2000, pp. 721, 724.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Bedini 2000, p. 724.
  24. ↑ Bedini 2000, p. 361.
  25. ↑ Sheptak 2013, pp. 68, 74.
  26. ↑ Ikäheimo, Salmi & Äikäs 2015, pp. 160, 167–168.
  27. ↑ Sheptak 2013, pp. 39, 54–57, 62.
  28. ↑ Healy & Savage 2021, pp. 2–3.
  29. ↑ In [12] [11] [24]. At the time, the nearest major port was Nito, in Manche Chol or Toquegua territory, though the nearest port simpliciter was Masca (just east of Nito, on what is now Río Ulúa), in Toquegua territory. Some scholars contest this identification. In [23]: the merchants "may have been part of a high culture akin to the Mayan", rather than Maya properly. And [25] identify them simply as Amerindians of what is now Honduras (either Maya or non-Maya). Non-Maya candidates include: the fairly Mayanised but as yet unidentified people of the lower Ulua Valley,[26][27] or else the not-so-fairly Mayanised Paya people of the Bay Islands and abutting mainland (modern Colón, Honduras).[28]
  30. ↑ Possibly barring 1490s voyages to Northern America, like those of John Cabot, João Fernandes Lavrador and Gaspar Corte-Real. Possibly also barring a 1500–1501 voyage to San Blas by Rodrigo de Bastidas.
  31. ↑ Bedini 2000, pp. 724–725.
  32. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Bedini 2000, p. 725.
  33. ↑ Bedini 2000, pp. 725–726.
  34. ↑ In [33]. Those killed in action included a crewman of the Gallega, and the captain (Diego Tristán) and ten (of eleven) crewmen of the Capitana. Those wounded in action included Bartholomew Columbus, who had been with the Gallega crew at the time.
  35. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Bedini 2000, p. 726.
  36. ↑ In [35]. In [35]: of the original 140 crew, "six had died or deserted before Veragua, twelve had been killed at Belen, and six had since died".
  37. ↑ Bedini 2000, pp. 726–727.
  38. ↑ Varela Bueno, Consuelo (2003). "Colón y la Casa de la Contratación". In Acosta Rodríguez, Antonio; González Rodríguez, Adolfo Luis; Vila Vilar, Enriqueta (eds.). La Casa de la Contratación y la navegación entre España y las Indias. Sevilla: Universidad de Sevilla, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Fundación El Monte. pp. 221–236. ISBN 978-84-00-08206-2.
  39. ↑ In [3] [4].
  40. ↑ Fernández-Armesto 1991, p. xix.
  41. ↑ In [3] [4] [40].
  42. ↑ Davidson 1997, pp. 448–450.
  43. ↑ In [5] [42].
  44. ↑ From personal communication with Ledesma.
  45. ↑ In [5] [6].
  46. ↑ In [5]. See accounts here for details.
  47. ↑ Davidson 1997, pp. xiv, xxv.
  48. 1 2 3 4 Polo Martín 2015, p. 152.
  49. 1 2 3 Polo Martín 2015, p. 147.
  50. ↑ Polo Martín 2015, p. 151.
  51. ↑ In [2]. And [48] deems the Ferdinand account the most detailed one on this voyage, but likewise questions its fidelity to first-hand experience. They note the de Porras account for its inclusion of distances,[49] and the Ledesma one for its geographic coherence.[50]
  52. ↑ Bedini 2000, pp. 413–415.
  53. ↑ Bedini 2000, p. 415.
  54. ↑ Bedini 2000, p. 416.
  55. ↑ Polo Martín 2015, pp. 144, 146.
  56. ↑ León Guerrero 2005, p. 22.
  57. ↑ Bedini 2000, pp. 720–727.
  58. ↑ Fernández-Armesto 1991, pp. xix–xx, xxvii.
  59. ↑ In [55] [56] [57] [58], unless otherwise noted. For dates: some may be inaccurate, some may be Old Style dates, some (in date ranges) may represent lower or upper bounds (earliest or latest possible dates) of listed events.
  60. ↑ "Carta de privilegio". Diccionario panhispánico del español jurídico.
  61. ↑ Gil 2003, p. 616.
  62. ↑ Polo Martín 2015, pp. 154–155.
  63. ↑ In [62] (including historical toponyms and their correspondence to each other and to modern ones), unless otherwise noted.
  64. 1 2 3 4 Polo Martín 2015, pp. 147–148.
  65. ↑ Polo Martín 2015, pp. 144–145.
  66. ↑ León Guerrero 2005, pp. 23–32.
  67. ↑ Gil 2003, pp. 619, 631–634.
  68. ↑ In [66] [67], unless otherwise noted.
  69. ↑ Diccionario marítimo español. Madrid: Imprenta Real. 1831. pp. 72, 380–381. OCLC 1025248273.
  70. ↑ León Guerrero 2005, p. 25.
  71. ↑ Polo Martín 2015, pp. 144, 147–148.
  72. ↑ León Guerrero 2005, pp. 28–29.
  73. ↑ Gil 2003, p. 619.
  74. ↑ Polo Martín 2015, pp. 144, 149–150.

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[edit]
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