View source for Protectorate

{{Short description|Concept in international relations}}
{{For|the 17th-century British protectorate|The Protectorate}}
{{Distinguish|Protecting power}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Forms of government|Power structure}}

A '''protectorate''', in the context of international relations, is a [[State (polity)|state]] or [[dependent territory]] that foregoes an independent foreign policy and often defence in favour of treaty with a '''protecting power''', in order to ensure its defence against regional aggressors.{{sfnp|Hoffmann, Protectorates|1987|p=336}} It is a [[dependent territory]] that enjoys [[self government]] over most of its internal affairs, while still recognizing the [[suzerainty]] of a more powerful [[sovereign state]] without being a possession.<ref name=cyprus>{{cite journal |last=Fuess |first=Albrecht |title=Was Cyprus a Mamluk protectorate? Mamluk policies toward Cyprus between 1426 and 1517 |journal=Journal of Cyprus Studies |date=1 January 2005 |volume=11 |issue=28–29 |pages=11–29 |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA144051591&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=13032925&p=AONE&sw=w|issn=1303-2925|access-date=24 October 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=reflection>{{cite journal |last=Reisman |first=W. |title=Reflections on State Responsibility for Violations of Explicit Protectorate, Mandate, and Trusteeship Obligations |journal=Michigan Journal of International Law |date=1 January 1989 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/mjil/vol10/iss1/21/ |access-date=24 October 2020 |issn=1052-2867}}</ref><ref name=boijkov>{{cite journal |last=Bojkov |first=Victor D. |title=Democracy in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Post-1995 political system and its functioning |journal=Southeast European Politics 4.1 |pages=41–67 |url=https://homepage.univie.ac.at/vedran.dzihic/bojkov_2003.pdf}}</ref> In exchange, the protectorate accepts treaty obligations which bind it to the protecting power in foreign policy.<ref name=boijkov/> Protectorates are established formally by a [[treaty]] between the powers involved.<ref name="cyprus" /><ref name="reflection" /> Under certain conditions—as with [[History of Egypt under the British#Veiled Protectorate (1882–1913)|Egypt under British rule]] (1882–1914)—a state can also be labelled as a '''de facto protectorate''' or a '''veiled protectorate'''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Leys |first=Colin |title=The British ruling class |journal=Socialist Register |date=2014 |volume=50 |url=https://socialistregister.com/index.php/srv/article/view/20194 |access-date=23 October 2020 |language=en |issn=0081-0606}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirkwood |first=Patrick M. |title="Lord Cromer's Shadow": Political Anglo-Saxonism and the Egyptian Protectorate as a Model in the American Philippines |journal=Journal of World History |date=21 July 2016 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1353/jwh.2016.0085 |s2cid=148316956 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/625981/summary |access-date=23 October 2020 |language=en |issn=1527-8050|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rubenson |first1=Sven |title=Professor Giglio, Antonelli and Article XVII of the Treaty of Wichale |journal=The Journal of African History |date=1966 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=445–457 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700006526 |jstor=180113 |s2cid=162713931 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180113 |access-date=24 October 2020 |issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

A protectorate is different from a [[colony]], insofar as it retains, at least on paper, self-governance and legal identity as a separate state, is not directly possessed, and rarely experiences [[colonization]] by the suzerain state.<ref>{{cite book |last=Archer |first=Francis Bisset |title=The Gambia Colony and Protectorate: An Official Handbook |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-7146-1139-6 | date=1967|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wk6o1XniPsQC |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnston |first1=Alex. |title=The Colonization of British East Africa |journal=Journal of the Royal African Society |date=1905 |volume=5 |issue=17 |pages=28–37 |jstor=715150 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/715150 |access-date=24 October 2020 |issn=0368-4016}}</ref> A state that is under the protection of another state while retaining its [[international legal personality]] and some independent foreign policy is sometimes called a "protected state" as distinct from a true protectorate, which has no foreign policy of its own save its alliance with its protector; a "protected state" in this sense typically has a greater degree of independence.{{sfnp|Meijknecht, Towards International Personality|2001|p=42}}{{efn|name=informal}}

== History ==
Protectorates are one of the oldest features of international relations, dating back to [[classical antiquity]]. The [[Delian League]], [[Classical Athens]]'s empire, operated as a network of [[Polis|''poleis'']], internally self-governing but surrendering their foreign policy to Athens. Likewise, the Roman Republic had an extensive network of protectorates, known as ''[[socii]]'', which provided up to 60% of the Republic's manpower.

In the [[Middle Ages]], [[Andorra]] was a protectorate of [[France]] and [[Spain]]. The modern understanding of protected states developed during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], when the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] set up numerous protectorates across Europe, including [[Confederation of the Rhine]], the [[Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)|Kingdoms of Italy]], [[Spain under Joseph Bonaparte|Spain]], [[Kingdom of Etruria|Etruria]], and [[Kingdom of Holland|Holland]], the [[Duchy of Warsaw]], and puppet republics in [[Helvetic Republic|Switzerland]] and (ephemerally) [[Irish Republic (1798)|Ireland]].{{sfnp|Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration|2013|p=16}}

== Typology ==
=== Foreign relations ===
In practice, a protectorate often has direct [[diplomacy|foreign relations]] only with the protector state, and transfers the management of all its more important international affairs to the latter.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Yoon |first=Jong-pil |title=Establishing expansion as a legal right: an analysis of French colonial discourse surrounding protectorate treaties |journal=History of European Ideas |date=17 August 2020 |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=811–826 |doi=10.1080/01916599.2020.1722725 |s2cid=214425740 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01916599.2020.1722725 |access-date=24 October 2020 |issn=0191-6599|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=boijkov/><ref name=cyprus/><ref name=reflection/> Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own but relies on the protector for its defence. This is distinct from [[annexation]], in that the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the protectorate.

Protectorates differ from [[League of Nations mandate]]s and their successors, [[United Nations trust territories]], whose administration is supervised, in varying degrees, by the [[international community]]. A protectorate formally enters into the protection through a bilateral agreement with the protector, while international mandates are stewarded by the world community-representing body, with or without a {{Lang|la|de facto}} administering power.

=== Protected state ===
{{See also|List of sovereign states without armed forces}}

A protected state has a form of protection where it continues to retain an "international personality" and enjoys an agreed amount of independence in conducting its foreign policy.{{sfnp|Meijknecht, Towards International Personality|2001|p=42}}<ref>{{harvp|Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration|2013|p=16}}: "First, protected states are entities which still have substantial authority in their internal affairs, retain some control over their foreign policy, and establish their relation to the protecting state on a treaty or another legal instrument. Protected states still have qualifications of statehood."
</ref>

For political and pragmatic reasons, the protection relationship is not usually advertised, but described with euphemisms such as "an independent state with special treaty relations" with the protecting state.{{sfnp|Onley, The Raj Reconsidered|2009|p=50}} A protected state appears on world maps just as any other independent state.{{efn|name=informal|''Protected state'' in this technical sense is distinguished from the informal usage of "protected state" to refer to a state receiving protection.}}

International administration of a state can also be regarded as an internationalized form of protection, where the protector is an international organisation rather than a state.{{sfnp|Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration|2013|pp=16–17}}

=== Colonial protection ===
Multiple regions—such as the [[Colonial Nigeria|Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria]], the [[History of Lagos|Colony and Protectorate of Lagos]], and similar—were subjects of colonial protection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Onah |first=Emmanuel Ikechi |title=Nigeria: A Country Profile |journal=Journal of International Studies |date=9 January 2020 |volume=10 |pages=151–162 |doi=10.32890/jis.10.2014.7954 |s2cid=226175755 |url=http://e-journal.uum.edu.my/index.php/jis/article/view/7954 |access-date=21 September 2021 |language=en |issn=2289-666X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Moloney |first=Alfred |title=Notes on Yoruba and the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos, West Africa |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography |date=1890 |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=596–614 |doi=10.2307/1801424 |jstor=1801424 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1801424 |access-date=21 September 2021 |issn=0266-626X}}</ref> Conditions of protection are generally less generous for areas of colonial protection, but were also much more flexible arrangements. However, protectorates in the modern period were often reduced to a {{Lang|la|[[de facto]]}} condition similar to a state colony, but with the pre-existing native state continuing as an agent of [[indirect rule]]. Occasionally, a protectorate, and indeed colonies, during this time had been established by another form of indirect rule: a [[chartered company]], which becomes a {{Lang|la|de facto}} corporate trading entity in its home state (yet geographically overseas), yet allowed to be an independent political actor, with its own foreign policy, and generally its own armed forces, and enabled to participate in local politics and affairs. This had the advantage of the ability to establish a new subordinated state by private company authority, which brought little cost to the state and could then be brought under the home state's authority after such a chartered company's abolition.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

In fact, protectorates were often declared despite no agreement being duly entered into by the state supposedly being protected, but some were agreed to by a protectorate's native institutional authority (which was often absolutist or autocratic in its headship) that was in legitimate power within those states. Protecting powers frequently decided to rearrange several protectorates into new, artificial unified states without consulting the protectorates native headship or being mindful of the theoretical duty of a protector to help maintain a protectorate's status and integrity. The [[Berlin Conference (1884)|Berlin agreement]] of 26 February 1885, allowed colonial powers of the time to establish protectorates in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] (the last region to be divided among them) by mere diplomatic notification, even without actual possession of the territory on the ground. This aspect of history is referred to as the [[Scramble for Africa]]. A similar case is the formal use of such terms as ''colony'' and ''protectorate'' for a union—convenient only for the colonizer or protector—of adjacent territories, over which it held ({{Lang|la|de facto}}) regional influence by protective or "raw" power.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

=== Amical protection ===
In an amical protection—as in the UK's previous relationship with the [[United States of the Ionian Islands]] from 1815 to 1864—the terms are often very favourable for the protectorate.<ref name="Wick2016">{{citation |last =Wick |first =Alexis |title =The Red Sea: In Search of Lost Space |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=haowDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA133 |year =2016 |publisher =University of California Press |isbn =978-0-520-28592-7 |pages =133–}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1 =Αλιβιζάτου |first1 =Αικατερίνη |title= Use of GIS in analyzing archaeological sites: the case study of Mycenaean Cephalonia, Greece |url =https://amitos.library.uop.gr/xmlui/handle/123456789/5063 |date=12 March 2019 |website=[[University of Peloponnese]] |language=en |access-date=2 July 2022}}</ref> Frequently established in the Early-Mid Modern period, the political interest of the protector was typically a moral one (as rather a matter of culturally accepted moral obligation, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, or of [[Dynasty|dynastic]], historical, or ethnocultural ties). The protector's interest could also be in countering a rival or enemy power—such as preventing the rival from obtaining or maintaining control of areas of strategic importance. This may involve a very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external affairs of state but may not have constituted any practical sacrifice, as the protectorate may not have been able to have a similar use of them without the protector's power.

The [[great powers]] frequently extended amical protection to other Christian (generally European) states, and to states of no significant importance.{{ambiguous|date=November 2011}} After 1815, non-Christian states (such as the [[#Chinese|Chinese Qing dynasty]]) also provided amical protection to other, much weaker states.

In post-modern times, a form of amical protection can be seen as an important or defining feature of [[microstates]]. According to the definition proposed by Dumienski (2014): "microstates are modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints".<ref>{{cite report |last =Dumieński |first =Zbigniew |title =Microstates as Modern Protected States: Towards a New Definition of Micro-Statehood |url =http://ams.hi.is/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Microstates_OccasionalPaper.pdf |date =2014 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140714195156/https://ams.hi.is/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Microstates_OccasionalPaper.pdf |publisher =Centre for Small State Studies |series =Occasional Paper |archive-date =14 July 2014 |access-date =2 July 2022}}</ref>

== List of protectorates ==

=== Argentina ===
* [[Liga Federal]] (1815–1820)
* {{flagicon image|Bandera de la Provincia de Tucumán.svg}} [[República de Tucumán]] (1820–1821)
* {{flagdeco|Perú}} [[Perú]] (1820–1822)

=== Brazil ===
'''Imperial protectorates'''

*{{flagdeco|Uruguay}} [[1851 Boundary Treaty (Brazil–Uruguay)|Uruguay]] (1851–1870)<ref>{{Cite web |last=DORATIOTO |first=Francisco |date=January 15, 2026 |title=Poder Naval e política externa do Império do Brasil no Rio da Prata (1822-1852) |url=https://portaldeperiodicos.marinha.mil.br/index.php/navigator/article/download/333/313/1172}}</ref>
*{{flagdeco|Paraguay}} [[Machaín-Irigoyen Treaty|Paraguay]] (1869–1876)<ref>{{Cite web |last=BATISTA VAZ |first=Braz |date=April 27, 2020 |title=Brazil and the end of the Paraguayan War: notes on military operations and diplomacy |url=https://portaldeperiodicos.marinha.mil.br/index.php/navigator/article/download/413/397}}</ref>

'''Republican protectorates'''

*{{flagdeco|Republic of Acre}} [[Republic of Acre|Independent State of Acre]] (1903)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Castro |first=Genesco de |date=2005 |title=O estado independente do Acre e J. Plácido de Castro : excertos históricos |url=http://www2.senado.leg.br/bdsf/handle/id/1051}}</ref>

=== British Empire ===
{{Main|British protectorate}}

==== List of former British protectorates ====

=====Americas=====
{{Excerpt|British protectorate|Americas|subsections=no}}

=====Arab world=====
{{Excerpt|British protectorate|Arab world|subsections=no}}

=====Asia=====
{{Excerpt|British protectorate|Asia|subsections=no}}

=====Europe=====
{{Excerpt|British protectorate|Europe|subsections=no}}

=====Sub-Saharan Africa=====
{{Excerpt|British protectorate|Sub-Saharan Africa|subsections=no}}

=====Oceania=====
{{Excerpt|British protectorate|Oceania|subsections=no}}

==== List of former British protected states ====
{{Excerpt|British protectorate|List of former British protected states|subsections=no}}
=== China ===
{{Further|Protectorate (imperial China)|Tributary system of China|List of tributary states of China}}
* [[Han dynasty]]:
** [[Protectorate of the Western Regions]]
* [[Tang dynasty]]:
** [[Beiting Protectorate]]
** [[Protectorate General to Pacify the West]]
** [[Protectorate General to Pacify the North]]
** [[Protectorate General to Pacify the East]]
** [[Protectorate General to Pacify the South]]
* [[Song dynasty]]
** [[Longyou Protectorate]]
* [[Yuan dynasty]]:
** [[Goryeo under Mongol rule|Goryeo]] (1270–1356)<ref>"A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present, by Michael J. Seth", p112</ref>
* {{flagicon image|Flag of China (1889–1912).svg}} [[Qing dynasty]]:
** [[Tibet under Qing rule|Tibet]]<ref>{{citation |last=Goldstein |first=Melvyn C. |title=Tibet, China and the United States |publisher=The Atlantic Council |date=April 1995 |url=https://case.edu/affil/tibet/documents/ReflectionsontheTibetQuestion1995.pdf |via=Case Western Reserve University |page=3}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Norbu |first=Dawa |title=China's Tibet Policy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EGqyIgOlUCIC&pg=PA78 |year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-79793-4 |page=78}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lin |first=Hsaio-ting |title=Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928–49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=osn1WrRCelcC&pg=PA8 |date=2011 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-5988-2 |page=8}}</ref>{{efn|Some scholars regard the relationship as one of [[Priest-patron]] rather than a protectorate.<ref>{{citation |first=Robert D. |last=Sloane |title=The Changing Face of Recognition in International Law: A Case Study of Tibet |journal=Emory International Law Review |volume=16 |number=1 |date=Spring 2002 |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Print?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/emint16&id=113 |via=Hein Online |at=note 93, p. 135: "This ["priest-patron"] relationship reemerged during China's prolonged domination by the Manchu Ch'ing dynasty (1611–1911)."}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Karan |first=P. P. |chapter=Suppression of Tibetan Religious Heritage |editor=S. D. Brunn |title=The Changing World Religion Map |publisher=Spriger Science |year=2015 |doi=10.1007/978-94-017-9376-6_23 |page=462|isbn=978-94-017-9375-9 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Sinha |first=Nirmal C. |title=Historical Status of Tibet |journal=Bulletin of Tibetology |volume=1 |number=1 |date=May 1964 |url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/bot/pdf/bot_01_01_04.pdf |page=27}}</ref>}}

=== Dutch Empire ===
Various sultanates in the [[Dutch East Indies]] (present day Indonesia):<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesian traditional polities |url=https://rulers.org/indotrad.html |access-date=2024-01-16 |website=rulers.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesian Traditional States part 1 |url=https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Indonesia_princely_states1.html |access-date=2024-01-16 |website=www.worldstatesmen.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesian Traditional States Part 2 |url=https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Indonesia_princely_states2.html |access-date=2024-01-17 |website=www.worldstatesmen.org}}</ref>

==== [[Sumatra]] ====
* Tarumon Kingdom (1830–1946)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Sultanate of Langkat.svg}} [[Sultanate of Langkat|Langkat Sultanate]] (26 October 1869 – December 1945)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Sultanate of Deli.svg}} [[Sultanate of Deli|Deli Sultanate]] (22 August 1862 – December 1945)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Asahan.svg}} [[Asahan Sultanate]] (27 September 1865 – December 1945)
* Bila (1864–1946)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Kota Pinang.png}} Tasik (Kota Pinang) (1865 – December 1945)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura.svg}} [[Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura|Siak Sultanate]] (1 February 1858 – 1946)
* Sungai Taras (Kampong Raja) (1864–1916)
* Panei (1864–1946)
* {{flagicon image|Royal Malay Banner (Yellow).svg}} [[Sultanate of Serdang]] (1865 – December 1945)
* Indragiri Sultanate (1838 – September 1945)
* {{flagicon image|Sultanate of Jambi Flag.png}} [[Jambi Sultanate]] (1833–1899)
* [[Kuala]] (1886–1946)
* {{flagicon image|Bendera Kesultanan Pelalawan.png}} [[Pelalawan Regency|Pelalawan]] (1859 – November 1945)
* [[Siantar]] (1904–1946)
* Tanah Jawa (1904–1946)

==== [[Riau Archipelago]] ====
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Riau (1818).svg}} [[Riau-Lingga Sultanate|Riau-Lingga]] (1824–1911)

==== [[Java]] ====
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Sultanate of Banten.svg}} [[Banten Sultanate|Banten]] (1682–1811)
* {{flagicon image|COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Katoenen banier met Arabische kalligrafie TMnr 5663-1.svg}} [[Cirebon]] (1684–1819)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Wirabraja - Gula Kelapa.svg}} [[Yogyakarta Sultanate|Yogjakarta Sultanate]] (13 February 1755 – 1942)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Sultanate of Mataram.svg}} [[Mataram Sultanate]] (later [[Surakarta Sunanate]]) (26 February 1677 – 19 August 1945)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Mangkunegaran.svg}} [[Mangkunegaran|Principality of Mangkunegara]] (24 February 1757 – 1946)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Pakualaman.svg}} [[Pakualaman|Duchy of Pakualaman]] (22 June 1812 – 1942)
* [[Semarang]] (1682–1809)

==== [[Bali]] ====
* {{flagicon image|Klungkung flag.svg}} [[Klungkung Regency|Klungkung]] (1843–1908)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Repubblica Romana (1798).svg}} [[Badung Regency|Badung]] (1843–1906)
* [[Bangli Regency|Bangli]] (1843–1908)
* [[Buleleng Regency|Buleleng]] (1841–1872 and 1890–1893)
* [[Gianyar Regency|Gianyar]] (1843–1908)
* [[Jembrana Regency|Jembrana]] (1849–1882)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kingdom of Karangasem.svg}} [[Kingdom of Karangasem|Karang Asem]] (1843–1908)
* [[Tabanan Regency|Tabanan]] (1843–1906)

==== [[Lombok]] ====
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Bali Selaparang (Lombok).svg}} [[Mataram (city)|Mataram Lombok]] (1843–1894)
* {{flagicon image|Bendera Kesultanan Sumbawa.svg}} [[Sumbawa people|Sumbawa]] (1908–c. 1948)
* {{flagicon image|Bendera Kesultanan Bima.png}} [[Bima]] (8 December 1669 – 1949)
* [[Dompu]] (1905–1942)

==== [[Flores]] and Solor ====
* [[Kingdom of Larantuka|Larantuka]] (1859–1904)
* Tanah Kuna Lima (1917–1924)
* Ndona (1917–1924)
* [[Sikka Regency|Sikka]] (1879–c. 1947)

==== [[Kalimantan|Borneo]] ====
* {{flagicon image|Banjar Sultanate Flag.svg}} [[Sultanate of Banjar]] (1826–1860)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Pontianak Sultanate.svg}} [[Pontianak Sultanate]] (16 August 1819 – 1942)
* {{flagicon image|Bendera sambas.png}} [[Sultanate of Sambas|Sambas Sultanate]] (1819–1949)
* Kubu (4 June 1823 – 1949)
* [[Landak Regency|Landak]] (1819–c. 1949)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kingdom of Mempawah.svg}} [[Mempawah Kingdom]] (1819–1942)
* [[Sanggau Regency|Sanggau Kingdom]] (182?–1949)
* [[Sekadau Regency|Sekadau]] (182?–c. 1949)
* Simpang (1822–c. 1949)
* [[Sintang Regency|Sintang]] (1822–1949)
* [[Sukadana]] (1828–c.1949)
* Kota Waringin Sultanate (1824–1949)
* [[Kutai|Kutai Kertanegara Sultanate]] (8 August 1825 – 1949)
* Gunung Tabur (1844–c.1945)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Bulungan Sultanate.jpg}} [[Sultanate of Bulungan|Bulungan Sultanate]] (1844–c.1949)
* Simbaliung (1844–c. 1949)
* Kubu (1823–1949)
* Tayan (1823–c. 1949)

==== [[Sulawesi|Celebes]] ====
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Sultanate of Gowa.svg}} [[Sultanate of Gowa|Gowa Sultanate]] (1669–1906; 1936–1949)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Bone.png}} [[Bone state|Bone Sultanate]] (1669–1905)
* [[Bolaang Mongondow Regency|Bolaang Mongonduw]] (1825–c. 1949)
* Laiwui (1858–c. 1949)
* {{flagicon image|Macangnge Flag of Luwu.jpg}} [[Luwu]] (1861–c. 1949)
* Soppeng (1860–c. 1949)
* Butung (1824–c. 1949)
* Siau (1680–c. 1949)
* [[Banggai Islands Regency|Banggai]] (1907–c. 1949)
* Tallo (1668–1780)
* Wajo (1860–c. 1949)
* Tabukan (1677–c. 1949)

==== [[Ajatappareng|Ajattappareng]] Confederacy (1905–c. 1949) ====
* Malusetasi 
* Rapang 
* Swaito (union of Sawito and Alita, 1908)
* [[Sidenreng Rappang Regency|Sidenreng]]
* Supa

==== Mabbatupappeng Confederacy (1906–c. 1949) ====
* [[Barru]]
* Soppengriaja (union of Balusu, Kiru, Kamiri, 1906)
* [[Tanette]]

==== Mandar Confederacy (1906–c. 1949) ====
* Balangnipa 
* Binuang 
* Cenrana 
* [[Majene Regency|Majene]] 
* [[Mamuju Regency|Mamuju]] 
* Pambauang
* Tapalang

==== Massenrempulu Confederacy (1905–c. 1949) ====
* Allah
* Batulapa
* Bontobatu
* [[Enrekang Regency|Enrekang]] 
* Kasa
* [[Maiwa, Indonesia|Maiwa]]
* Malua

==== [[Maluku Islands|Moluccas]] ====
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Ternate Sultanate.png}} [[Sultanate of Ternate|Ternate Sultanate]] (12 October 1676 – 1949)
* {{flagicon image|Bendera Sultan Bacan.svg}} [[Sultanate of Bacan|Bacan Sultanate]] (1667–1949)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Sultanate of Tidore.png}}[[Sultanate of Tidore|Tidore]] (1657–c.1949)

==== [[West Timor]] and Alor ====
* Amanatun (1749–c. 1949)
* Amanuban (1749–c. 1949)
* Amarasi (1749–c. 1949)
* Amfoan (1683–c. 1949)
* Beboki (1756–c. 1949)
* Belu (1756–c.1949)
* Insana (1756–c.1949)
* Sonbai Besar (1756–1906)
* Sonbai Kecil (1659–1917)
* Roti (Korbafo before 1928) (c. 1750–c.1949)
* TaEbenu (1688–1917)

==== [[New Guinea]] ====
* {{flagicon image|Morning Star flag.svg}} [[Netherlands New Guinea|Dutch New Guinea]]:
** {{flagicon image|Kerajaan Kaimana Papua.gif}} [[Kingdom of Kaimana|Kaimana Sultanate]] (1828–1949)

=== Egypt ===
* {{flag|All-Palestine}} (1948–1959) – although it claimed the former territory of [[Mandatory Palestine]], the polity only held control of the [[Gaza Strip]]. It was recognized by [[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]], [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]], [[Lebanon]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[First Syrian Republic|Syria]] and [[Kingdom of Yemen|Yemen]]; but not [[Jordan|Transjordan]] who would [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank|annex]] the [[West Bank]] in 1950.

=== France ===

==== Africa ====
"Protection" was the formal legal structure under which [[French colonial empire|French colonial forces]] expanded in Africa between the 1830s and 1900. Almost every pre-existing state that was later part of [[French West Africa]] was placed under protectorate status at some point, although [[direct rule]] gradually replaced protectorate agreements. Formal ruling structures, or fictive recreations of them, were largely retained—as with the low-level authority figures in the French [[Cercle (French colonial)|Cercles]]—with leaders appointed and removed by French officials.<ref>See the classic account on this in Robert Delavignette. ''Freedom and Authority in French West Africa''. London: Oxford University Press, (1950). The more recent standard studies on French expansion include:<br />Robert Aldrich. Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion. Palgrave MacMillan (1996) {{ISBN|0-312-16000-3}}.<br />Alice L. Conklin. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa 1895–1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press (1998), {{ISBN|978-0-8047-2999-4}}.<br />Patrick Manning. Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa, 1880–1995. Cambridge University Press (1998) {{ISBN|0-521-64255-8}}.<br />Jean Suret-Canale. Afrique Noire: l'Ere Coloniale (Editions Sociales, Paris, 1971); Eng. translation, French Colonialism in Tropical Africa, 1900 1945. (New York, 1971).</ref>

* [[Benin]] traditional states:
** Independent of {{flagicon image|Royal banner of Béhanzin of Dahomey.svg}} [[Danhome]], under French protectorate, from 1889
** [[Porto-Novo]] a French protectorate, 23 February 1863 – 2 January 1865. [[Cotonou]] a French Protectorate, 19 May 1868. [[Porto-Novo]] French protectorate, 14 April 1882.
* [[Central African Republic]] traditional states:
** French protectorate over [[Dar al-Kuti]] (1912 Sultanate suppressed by the French), 12 December 1897
** French protectorate over the Sultanate of [[Bangassou]], 1894
* [[Chad]]: [[Baghirmi]] state 20 September 1897 a French protectorate
* [[Côte d'Ivoire]]: 10 January 1889 French protectorate of Ivory Coast
* [[Guinea]]: 5 August 1849 French protectorate over coastal region; (Riviéres du Sud).
* [[Niger]], [[Sultanate of Damagaram]] ([[Zinder]]), 30 July 1899 under French protectorate over the native rulers, titled [[Sarkin]] Damagaram or Sultan
* [[Senegal]]: 4 February 1850 First of several French protectorate treaties with local rulers
* [[Comoros]] traditional states:
** [[Grande Comore]], [[Mohéli]] and [[Anjouan]] were French protectorates from 6 January 1886 until 25 July 1912, when annexed.
* Present [[Djibouti]] was originally, from 24 June 1884, the Territory of [[Obock]] and Protectorate of [[Tadjoura]] (Territoires Français d'Obock, Tadjoura, Dankils et Somalis), a French protectorate recognized by Britain on 9 February 1888, renamed on 20 May 1896 as [[French Somaliland]] (Côte Française des Somalis).
* [[Mauritania]]: 12 May 1903 [[Colonial Mauritania|French protectorate]]; within Mauritania several traditional states:
** [[Adrar (region)|Adrar]] emirate from 9 January 1909 French protectorate (before Spanish)
** The Taganit confederation's emirate (founded by Idaw `Ish dynasty), from 1905 under French protectorate.
** [[Brakna]] confederation's emirate
** [[Emirate of Trarza]]: 15 December 1902 placed under French protectorate status.
* {{flagicon image|Merchant flag of French Morocco.svg}} [[French protectorate in Morocco|Morocco]] – most of the sultanate was under [[French protectorate of Morocco|French protectorate]] (30 March 1912 – 7 April 1956) although, in theory, it remained a sovereign state under the [[Treaty of Fez]];<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jrTsNTzcY7EC&pg=PA51|title=International Law: Achievements and Prospects|first=Mohammed|last=Bedjaoui|date=1 January 1991|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=9231027166|via=Google Books}}</ref> this{{which|date=August 2019}} fact was confirmed by the [[International Court of Justice]] in 1952.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esfISSxc13cC&pg=PA453|title=Repertory of Decisions of the International Court of Justice (1947–1992)|first=Giuliana Ziccardi|last=Capaldo|date=1 January 1995|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=0792329937|via=Google Books}}</ref>
** The northern part of [[Morocco]] was under [[Spanish protectorate of Morocco|Spanish protectorate]] in the same period.
* Traditional [[Madagascar]] States
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Merina Kingdom.svg}} [[Kingdom of Imerina]] under French protectorate, 1882. [[French Madagascar]] colony, 28 February 1897.
* {{flagdeco|French protectorate of Tunisia}} [[Tunisia]] (12 May 1881 – 20 March 1956): became a [[French protectorate of Tunisia|French protectorate]] by treaty

==== Asia ====
[[File:1 Sapèque - Protectorate of Tonkin (1905) 02.jpg|thumb|1 Sapèque – Protectorate of Tonkin (1905)]]

* [[French Indochina]] until 1953/54:
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Colonial Annam.svg}} [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]] and [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]] 6 June 1884
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Cambodia under French protection.svg}} [[French protectorate of Cambodia|Cambodia]] 11 August 1863
** {{flagicon image|Flag of French Laos.svg}} [[French protectorate of Laos|Laos]] 3 October 1893
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Central Vietnam (1885-1890).svg}} [[Nguyễn Dynasty|Vietnam]] 6 June 1884

==== Europe ====
* [[File:Coat of arms of the Most Serene Republican Monarchy of Naples.svg|15px]] [[Neapolitan Republic (1647–1648)|Neapolitan Republic]] (1647–1648)
* {{flagdeco|North Rhine-Westphalia}} [[Rhenish Republic]] (1923–1924)
* {{flagdeco|Saar Protectorate}} [[Saar Protectorate]] (1946–1956), not colonial or amical, but a former part of Germany that would by referendum return to it, in fact a re-edition of a former [[Saar (League of Nations)|League of Nations mandate]]. Most French protectorates were colonial.

==== Oceania ====
* {{flagdeco|French Polynesia}} [[French Polynesia]], mainly [[Society Islands|the Society Islands]] (several others were immediately annexed).<ref>C. W. Newbury. Aspects of French Policy in the Pacific, 1853–1906. The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Feb., 1958), pp. 45–56</ref> All eventually were annexed by 1889.
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Tahiti Protectorate 1842-1843.svg}} [[Tahiti]] (native king styled Ari`i rahi) becomes a French protectorate, 1842–1880
** {{flagicon image|Drapeau de Raiatea (polynésie Française 1880-1897).png}} [[Raiatea]] and [[Tahaa]] (after temporary annexation by Tahiti; (title Ari`i) a French protectorate, 1880)
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kingdom of Mangareva 1832-1843.svg}} [[Mangareva]] (one of the [[Gambier Islands]]; ruler title `Akariki) a French protectorate, 16 February 1844 (unratified) and 30 November 1871<ref>{{cite thesis|last=Gonschor|first=Lorenz Rudolf|title=Law as a Tool of Oppression and Liberation: Institutional Histories and Perspectives on Political Independence in Hawaiʻi, Tahiti Nui/French Polynesia and Rapa Nui|location=Honolulu|publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa|date=August 2008|hdl=10125/20375|pages=56–59|type=Thesis }}</ref>
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Wallis and Futuna.svg}} [[Protectorate of Wallis and Futuna|Wallis and Futuna]]:
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Uvea.svg}} [[Wallis (island)|Wallis]] declared to be a French protectorate by [[List of kings of Uvea|King]] of [[Uvea (Wallis and Futuna)|Uvea]] and Captain Mallet, 4 November 1842. Officially in a treaty becomes a French protectorate, 5 April 1887.
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Sigave.svg}} [[Sigave]] and {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Alo.svg}} [[Alo (Wallis and Futuna)|Alo]] on the islands of [[Futuna (Wallis and Futuna)|Futuna]] and [[Alofi Island|Alofi]] signed a treaty establishing a French protectorate on 16 February 1888.

=== Germany ===
{{See also|List of former German colonies}}
[[File:5000 Kronen BM1944.jpg|thumb|200px|5000 ''{{lang|de|[[Bohemian and Moravian koruna|kronen]]}}'' – [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] (1939–1945)]]

The [[German Empire]] used the word ''{{lang|de|Schutzgebiet}}'', literally protectorate, for all of its colonial possessions until they were lost during [[World War I]], regardless of the actual level of government control. Cases involving indirect rule included:
* {{flagdeco|German New Guinea}} [[German New Guinea]] (1884–1920), now part of [[Papua New Guinea]]
* {{flagicon image|Reichskolonialflagge.svg}} [[Togoland]] (1884–1914), now part of [[Ghana]] and [[Togo]]
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Bougainville.svg}} [[North Solomon Islands]] (1885–1920), now part of [[Papua New Guinea]] and the [[Solomon Islands]]
* {{flagicon image|Flagge Witu 1890 laut Voeltzkow.jpg}} [[Wituland]] (1885–1890), now part of [[Kenya]]
* {{flagicon image|Reichskolonialflagge.svg}} [[German Samoa]] (1900–1920), present-day [[Samoa]]
* {{flagicon image|Flagge der Ralik-Inseln.svg}} [[Marshall Islands]]
* {{flagdeco|German New Guinea}} [[Nauru]], various officials posted with the Head Chiefs
* {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} [[Gwandu|Gando]] Emirate (1895–1897)<ref name="Gründer-2004">{{Cite book|last=Gründer|first=Horst|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rKfe8UOC6cAC|title=Geschichte der deutschen Kolonien|date=2004|publisher=Schöningh|isbn=978-3-8252-1332-9|language=de}}</ref>
* {{flagicon image|No flag.svg|size=24px}} [[Gourma Province|Gulmu]] (1895–1897)<ref name="Gründer-2004" />

Before and during [[World War II]], [[Nazi Germany]] designated the rump of occupied [[Czechoslovakia]] and [[Denmark]] as protectorates:
* {{flagdeco|Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia}} [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] (1939–1945), however it was also considered a partially annexed territory of Germany
* {{flagdeco|Denmark}} [[Denmark in World War II|Denmark]] (1940–1943)

=== India ===
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Bhutan.svg}} [[Bhutan]] (1947–2011)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Sikkim (1914-1962).svg}} [[Kingdom of Sikkim]] (1950–1975), later [[1975 Sikkimese monarchy referendum|acceded]] to India as [[Sikkim|State of Sikkim]].{{sfnp|Hoffmann, Protectorates|1987|pp=336–339}}

=== Italy ===
* {{flagicon image|Al-1918.svg|size=24px}} [[Italian Protectorate on southern Albania|The Albanian Republic]] (1917–1920) and the {{flagicon image|Flag of Albania (1939–1943).svg}} [[Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)|Albanian Kingdom]] (1939–1943)
* {{flagdeco|Monaco}} [[Monaco]] under amical Protectorate of the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]] 20 November 1815 to 1860.
* {{flagicon image|Ethiopian Pennants.svg}} [[Ethiopia]] : 2 May 1889 [[Treaty of Wuchale]], in the [[Italian language]] version, stated that Ethiopia was to become an Italian protectorate, while the Ethiopian [[Amharic language]] version merely stated that the Emperor could, if he so chose, go through Italy to conduct foreign affairs. When the differences in the versions came to light, [[Emperor of Ethiopia|Emperor]] [[Menelik II of Ethiopia|Menelik II]] abrogated first the article in question (XVII), and later the whole treaty. The event culminated in the [[First Italo-Ethiopian War]], in which Ethiopia was victorious and defended her sovereignty in 1896.
* {{flagicon image|Coat of arms of Italian Libya (1940–1943).svg}} [[Italian Libya|Libya]]: on 15 October 1912 Italian protectorate declared over [[Cirenaica]] (Cyrenaica) until 17 May 1919.
* {{flagicon image|Banaadir calan.gif}} [[Banaadir|Benadir Coast]] in Somalia: 3 August 1889 Italian protectorate (in the northeast; unoccupied until May 1893), until 16 March 1905 when it changed to {{Flagicon image|Italian_Somaliland_COA.svg}} [[Italian Somaliland]].
** {{flagicon image|Majeerteen sultanate flag.jpg}} [[Majerteen#The Majeerteen Sultanates|Majeerteen Sultanate]] since 7 April 1889 under Italian protectorate (renewed 7 April 1895), then in 1927 incorporated into the Italian colony.
** {{flagicon image|Majeerteen sultanate flag.jpg}} [[Sultanate of Hobyo]] since December 1888 under Italian protectorate (renewed 11 April 1895), then in October 1925 incorporated into the Italian colony (known as ''Obbia'').

=== Japan ===
* {{flagdeco|Korea}} [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905|Korean Empire]] (1905–1910)

=== Poland ===
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Feodosia.svg|size=24px}} [[Feodosia#Kaffa (Genoese colony)|Kaffa]] (1462–1475)

=== Portugal ===
* [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda (Portuguese Congo)]] (1885–1974), Portugal first claimed sovereignty over Cabinda in the February 1885 [[Treaty of Simulambuco]], which gave Cabinda the status of a protectorate of the [[Portuguese Crown]] under the request of "the princes and governors of Cabinda".
* [[Kingdom of Kongo]] (1857–1914)
* [[Gaza Empire]] (1824–1895), now part of [[Mozambique]]
* [[Angoche Sultanate]] (1903–1910)
* [[Kingdom of Larantuka]] (1515–1859)

=== Russia and the Soviet Union ===
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanate.svg}} [[Cossack Hetmanate]] (1654–1764)
* [[File:Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti.svg|25px]] [[Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti]] (1783–1801)
* {{flagicon image|Banner of the Kingdom of Imereti.svg}} [[Kingdom of Imereti]] (1804–1810)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Revolutionary Serbia.svg}} [[Revolutionary Serbia]] (1807–1812)
* {{flagdeco|Principality of Serbia}} [[Principality of Serbia]] (1826–1856), now part of [[Serbia]]
* {{flagicon image|Civil Ensign of the Principality of Moldavia (1834-1861).svg}} [[Moldavia|Principality of Moldova]] (1829–1856), now part of [[Moldova]], [[Romania]] and [[Ukraine]]
* {{flagicon image|Flagge von Walachischen 1858.svg}} [[Wallachia|Principality of Wallachia]] (1829–1856)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Emirate of Bukhara.svg}} [[Emirate of Bukhara]] (1873–1920)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Khanate of Khiva.svg}} [[Khanate of Khiva]] (1873–1920)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Uriankhai (1918-1921).svg}} [[Uryankhay Krai]] (1914)
* {{flagicon image|Kokbayraq flag.svg}} [[Second East Turkestan Republic]] (1944–1949), now part of [[Xinjiang]], [[China]]

==== ''De facto'' ====
{{See also|Russian-occupied territories}}
Some sources mention the following territories as ''[[de facto]]'' Russian protectorates:

* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_South_Ossetia.svg}} [[South Ossetia]] (2008–present)<ref name=oboze>{{cite journal |last1=Gerrits |first1=Andre W. M. |last2=Bader |first2=Max |title=Russian patronage over Abkhazia and South Ossetia: implications for conflict resolution |journal=East European Politics |date=2 July 2016 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=297–313 |doi=10.1080/21599165.2016.1166104 |s2cid=156061334 |issn=2159-9165|doi-access=free |hdl=1887/73992 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_Transnistria_(state).svg}} [[Transnistria]] (1992–present)<ref>{{cite web |last=Pieńkowski |first=Jakub |title=Renewal of Negotiations on Resolving the Transnistria Conflict |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/gray-literature-detail?id=598329 |date=2016 |website=[[Central and Eastern European Online Library]] (CEEOL) |language=en |access-date=3 July 2022}}</ref>
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Abkhazia.svg}} [[Abkhazia]] (1994–present)<ref name=oboze/>
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_Donetsk_People's_Republic.svg}} [[Donetsk People's Republic]] (2015–2022)<ref>{{cite news|last1=Greene |first1=Sam |title=Putin's 'Passportization' Move Aimed At Keeping the Donbass Conflict on Moscow's Terms |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/04/26/putins-passportization-move-aimed-at-keeping-the-donbass-conflict-on-moscows-terms-a65405 |access-date=24 October 2020 |work=The Moscow Times |date=26 April 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Luhansk_People's_Republic.svg}} [[Luhansk People's Republic]] (2015–2022)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=Paul |title=Russia's role in the war in Donbass, and the threat to European security |journal=European Politics and Society |date=1 October 2016 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=506–521 |doi=10.1080/23745118.2016.1154229 |s2cid=155529950 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/23745118.2016.1154229 |issn=2374-5118|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_Artsakh.svg}} [[Republic of Artsakh]] (2020–2023)<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin's Karabakh victory sparks alarm in Ukraine |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/ukrainealert/putins-karabakh-victory-sparks-alarm-in-ukraine/ |access-date=25 April 2021 |work=Atlantic Council |date=12 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Goble |first1=Paul |title=Nagorno-Karabakh Now A Russian Protectorate – OpEd |url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/25112020-nagorno-karabakh-now-a-russian-protectorate-oped/ |access-date=21 September 2021 |work=Eurasia Review |date=25 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Socor |first1=Vladimir |title=Russia's 'Peacekeeping' Operation in Karabakh: Foundation of a Russian Protectorate (Part Two) |url=https://jamestown.org/program/russias-peacekeeping-operation-in-karabakh-foundation-of-a-russian-protectorate-part-two/ |access-date=21 September 2021 |work=Jamestown}}</ref>

=== Spain ===
* {{flagicon image|Merchant flag of Spanish Morocco.svg}} [[Spanish protectorate in Morocco|Spanish Morocco]] protectorate from 27 November 1912 until 2 April 1958 (Northern zone until 7 April 1956, Southern zone ([[Cape Juby]]) until 2 April 1958).
* {{flagicon image|Late_19th_Century_Flag_of_Sulu.svg|size=24px}} [[Sultanate of Sulu]] (1851–1899)
* [[Spanish protectorate in Cambodia]] (1593/97-1600)
* [[Elobey, Annobón, and Corisco]] (1843-1926)

=== Turkey and the Ottoman Empire ===
{{main|Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire}}

* [[File:Flag of Wallachia.svg|23px]] [[Principality of Wallachia]] (1396–1397, 1417–1829, 1856–1861)<ref name="Kingston 2023">{{Cite book |last=Kingston |first=A. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teC-EAAAQBAJ&q=Ottoman+vassal&pg=PT57 |title=Ottoman Empire: The Sultan's Domain |date=2023 |publisher=A.J. Kingston |isbn=978-1-83938-338-0 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[File:Flag of Moldavia.svg|23px]] [[Principality of Moldavia]] (1456–1457, 1503–1829, 1856–1861)<ref name="Kingston 2023" />
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Principality_of_Samtskhe.svg}} [[Samtskhe-Saatabago]] (1500–1625)
* {{flagicon image|Banner of the Kingdom of Imereti.svg}} [[Kingdom of Imereti]] (1555–1804)
* {{flagicon image|Coat of arms of Svaneti.svg}} [[Principality of Svaneti]] (1555–1804)<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Toumanoff |author-first=Cyril |author-link=Cyril Toumanoff |date=1963 |title=Studies in Christian Caucasian History |pages=257 |location=[[Washington DC]] |publisher=[[Georgetown University Press]]}}</ref>
* {{flagicon image|Abkhazia_flag_1810.png}} [[Principality of Abkhazia]] (1555–1810)
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Principality_of_Mingrelia.svg}} [[Principality of Mingrelia]] (1557–1803)
* {{flagdeco|Maldives}} [[Maldives]] (1560–1590)
* {{flagdeco|Aceh Sultanate}} [[Aceh Sultanate]] (1569–1903)
* {{flagicon image|Transylvanian_flag,_1601.svg}} [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Principality of Transylvania]] (1570–1699)
* {{flagicon image|Banner_of_Guria.svg}} [[Principality of Guria]] (1614–1810)
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanate.svg}} [[Cossack Hetmanate]] (1669–1685)
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_Serbia_(Sretenje_constitution_1835).svg}} [[Principality of Serbia]] (1815–1826, 1856–1878)
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_United_Principalities_of_Romania_(1862–1866).svg}} [[United Principalities of Romania]] (1862–1877)
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg}} [[Principality of Bulgaria]] (1878–1908)

==== ''De facto'' ====
* {{flagdeco|Hatay}} [[Hatay State]] (1938–1939)
* {{flagdeco|Northern Cyprus}} [[Northern Cyprus]] (1974–present)
* {{flagdeco|Syria}} [[Turkish occupation of northern Syria|Northern Syria]] (2016–2026)
=== Israel ===
==== ''De facto'' ====
{{See also|Israeli-occupied territories}}
Some sources mention the following territories as ''[[de facto]]'' Israeli protectorates:
* {{flagdeco|Palestine}} [[Palestinian Authority]] (1994–present)<ref>{{cite web |last=White |first=Ben |date=2014-01-30 |title=Edward Said's legacy lives inside us |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20140130-edward-saids-legacy-lives-inside-us/ |website=Middle East Monitor |access-date=2026-07-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web 
| url = https://www.israelnationalnews.com/news/339748 
| title = Want Peace? Democratize Jordan, Says Mudar Zahran 
| last = Belman 
| first = Ted 
| date = 2012-01-23 
| website = Israel National News 
| access-date = 2026-07-02
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=White |first=Ben |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20150404-the-persistence-of-the-palestine-authority/ |title=The persistence of the Palestinian Authority |work=[[Middle East Monitor]] |date=2015-04-04 |access-date=2026-07-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=El-Hasan |first=Hasan Afif |url=https://www.palestinechronicle.com/the-palestinians-are-not-closer-to-having-a-state/ |title=The Palestinians Are Not Closer to Having a State |website=[[The Palestine Chronicle]] |date=2012-04-02 |access-date=2026-07-02}}</ref>
* {{flagdeco|Druze}} [[Administrative Council of Jabal Bashan]] (2025–present)<ref>{{Cite web |last=TheGeoPolity |title=The Druze Dilemma |url=https://thegeopolity.com |website=TheGeoPolity |date=2025-07-31 |access-date=2026-07-02 |language=en}}</ref>
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Lebanon (1943-1990).svg}} [[State of Free Lebanon]] (1979–1984)<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Calvocoressi |first=Peter |url=https://www.google.com/books?id=pdnbAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA354 |title=World Politics since 1945 |date=2013-09-13 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-86360-1 |pages=354 |language=en |quote=The Israelis invaded and with their help Major Saad Haddad established (in a largely Muslim area) a semi-independent Christian state of Free Lebanon. Neither the Lebanese army, always helpless in the face of communal strife, nor the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) could counter this creation of an Israeli puppet state, while in the rest of the country private armies resumed their battles and assassinations.}}</ref><ref name="Hoagland1979">{{cite news |last=Hoagland |first=Jim |title=Free Lebanon: Christian Enclave With an Israeli Lifeline |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/11/06/free-lebanon-christian-enclave-with-an-israeli-lifeline/b81ce8fd-5964-428f-aac1-35c13e3030c7/ |work=The Washington Post |date=1979-11-06 |access-date=2026-07-02}}</ref>

=== United Nations ===
{{main|United Nations protectorate}}

=== United States ===
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Negros Republic.svg|size=24px}} [[Republic of Negros]] (1899–1901)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aguilar |first1=Filomeno V. |title=The Republic of Negros |journal=Philippine Studies |date=2000 |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=26–52 |jstor=42634352 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42634352 |issn=0031-7837}}</ref>
* [[Republic of Zamboanga]] (1899–1903)
* {{flagicon image|Late_19th_Century_Flag_of_Sulu.svg|size=24px}} [[Sultanate of Sulu]] (1899–1915)
==== ''De facto'' ====
Some sources mention the following territories as ''[[de facto]]'' American protectorates:

* {{flag|Venezuela}} (2026–present)<ref>{{cite web|access-date=15 July 2026 |author1=Edgardo Lander |author2=Santiago Arconada Rodríguez |date=25 May 2026 |language=en |periodical=Truthout |title=Trump Has Turned Venezuela Into a 21st Century US Protectorate |url=https://truthout.org/articles/trump-has-turned-venezuela-into-a-21st-century-us-protectorate/}}<!-- auto-translated from French by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Hernández |first=Alicia |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cn87rv0jdy1o |title=Under pressure from Trump, Venezuela's new president has aces up her sleeve |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2026-02-18 |access-date=2026-07-15}}</ref>

==== Contemporary usage ====
Some agencies of the [[Federal government of the United States|United States government]], such as the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]], refer to the [[insular area]]s of the United States—such as [[American Samoa]] and the [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]]—as protectorates.<ref>{{cite news|date=12 March 2020|title=Notice of Finding of Failure To Submit State Plans for the Municipal Solid Waste Landfills Emission Guidelines|work=Environmental Protection Agency|url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2020/03/12/2020-05079/notice-of-finding-of-failure-to-submit-state-plans-for-the-municipal-solid-waste-landfills-emission}}</ref> However, the agency responsible for the administration of those areas, the [[Office of Insular Affairs]] within the [[United States Department of the Interior]], uses only the term "insular area" rather than protectorate.

* {{flagdeco|American Samoa}} [[American Samoa]]
* {{flagdeco|Guam}} [[Guam]]
* {{flagdeco|Northern Mariana Islands}} [[Northern Mariana Islands]]
* {{flagdeco|Puerto Rico}} [[Puerto Rico]]
* {{flagdeco|U.S. Virgin Islands}} [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]]

== Joint protectorates ==
{{Further|Condominium (international law)}}

* {{flagicon|Republic of Ragusa}} [[Republic of Ragusa]] (1684–1798), a joint [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg Austrian]]–[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkish]] protectorate
* The {{flagicon image|Flag of the United States of the Ionian Islands.svg}} [[United States of the Ionian Islands]] and the {{flagicon image|Flag of the Septinsular Republic.svg}} [[Septinsular Republic]] were federal republics of seven formerly Venetian (see [[Provveditore]]) Ionian Islands ([[Corfu]], [[Cephalonia]], [[Zante]], [[Santa Maura]], [[Ithaca (island)|Ithaca]], [[Cerigo]], and [[Paxos (island)|Paxos]]), officially under joint protectorate of the allied Christian powers, {{Lang|la|de facto}} a British amical protectorate from 1815 to 1864.
* {{flagicon|UK|variant=}} {{flagicon|EGY|variant=1922}} [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]] (1899–1956)
* {{flagicon|Independent State of Croatia}} [[Independent State of Croatia]] (1941–1943)

== See also ==
* [[British Protected Person]]
* [[Client state]]
* [[European Union Police Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
* [[EUFOR Althea]]
* [[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
* [[League of Nations mandate]]
* [[Peace Implementation Council]]
* [[Protector (title)|Protector]] (titles for [[Head of State|Heads of State]] and other individual persons)
* [[Protectorate (imperial China)]]
* [[Timeline of national independence]]
* [[Tribute]]
* [[List of territories administered by the United Nations]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |last1=Hoffmann |first1=Gerhard |chapter=Protectorates |title=Encyclopedia of Disputes Installment 10 |date=1987 |pages=336–339 |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444862419500853 |access-date=24 October 2020 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-86241-9.50085-3 |isbn=9780444862419 |ref={{sfnref|Hoffmann, Protectorates|1987}}|chapter-url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Protectorate |volume=22 |pages=468–470 |first=John |last=Macdonell |short=1}}
* {{citation |last=Meijknecht |first=Anna |title=Towards International Personality: The Position of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples in International Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3NnYzUWxtoC&pg=PA42 |year=2001 |publisher=Intersentia NV |isbn=978-90-5095-166-1 |ref={{sfnref|Meijknecht, Towards International Personality|2001}}}}
* {{citation |first=James |last=Onley |title=The Raj Reconsidered: British India's Informal Empire and Spheres of Influence in Asia and Africa |journal=Asian Affairs |volume=11 |number=1 |date=March 2009 |url=https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf |ref={{sfnref|Onley, The Raj Reconsidered|2009}} |access-date=2020-12-24 |archive-date=2022-10-09 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{citation |last=Reisman |first=W. |title=Reflections on state responsibility for violations of explicit protectorate, mandate, and trusteeship obligations |journal=Michigan Journal of International Law |volume=10 |number=1 |year=1989 |pages=231–240 |ref={{sfnref|Reisman, Relections on state responsibility|1989}}}}
* {{citation |last=Willigen |first=Niels van |title=Peacebuilding and International Administration: The Cases of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UsLN-YFLKRUC&pg=PA16 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-11718-5 |ref={{sfnref|Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration|2013}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Larousse |first=Pierre |author2=Paul Augé |author2-link=Paul Augé |author3=Claude Augé |author3-link=Claude Augé |title=Nouveau Petit Larousse Illustré: Dictionnaire Encyclopédique |year=1925 |publisher=Larousse|language=fr}}

{{colonial Empires}}
{{Terms for types of administrative territorial entities}}
{{Autonomous types of first-tier administration}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Client states]]
[[Category:Colonialism| ]]
[[Category:Constitutional state types]]