View source for Manchu alphabet

{{short description|Alphabet used to write the Manchu language}}
{{Expand Chinese|满文|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox Writing system
|name=Manchu script
|altname={{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ|lang=mnc}} {{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ|lang=mnc}}<br/>''manju hergen''
|languages=[[Manchu language|Manchu]]<br/>[[Xibe language|Xibe]]
|type=[[Alphabet]]
|fam1=[[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] 
|fam2=[[Proto-Sinaitic alphabet]]<ref name="phonographic">{{Cite book |last1=Wilbourne |first1=Emily |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e6YWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT106 |title=Acoustemologies in Contact: Sounding Subjects and Modes of Listening in Early Modernity |last2=Cusick |first2=Suzanne G. |date=2021-01-19 |publisher=Open Book Publishers |isbn=978-1-80064-038-2 |language=en |quote=Manchu: its alphabet developed in 1599 from the Mongolian alphabet, which can be traced through Old Uyghur, Aramaic, and Syriac scripts all the way back to Phoenician, the fountainhead of all alphabets.}}</ref>
|fam3=[[Phoenician alphabet]]<ref name="phonographic"/><ref name="houston">{{Cite book |last=Houston |first=Stephen D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jsWL_XJt-dMC&pg=PA59 |title=The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process |date=2004-12-09 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-83861-0 |pages=59 |language=en |quote=The Aramaic Uyghur script, which was likewise largely alphabetized, inspired the Mongolian alphabet and it in turn provided the basis for the Manchu alphabet created in AD 1599.}}</ref>
|fam4=[[Aramaic alphabet]]
|fam5=[[Syriac alphabet]]
|fam6=[[Sogdian alphabet]]
|fam7=[[Old Uyghur alphabet]]
|fam8=[[Mongolian script]]
|children={{Plainlist|
* [[Dagur language#Writing system|Dagur alphabet]]
* [[Xibe language#Writing system|Xibe alphabet]]
}}
|sample=Harvard drs 45809275 正紅旗奏摺檔 v.37.pdf
|caption=18th-century manuscript
|imagesize=250px
|unicode=
|iso15924=Mong
}}
[[File:Manchu chinese.jpg|thumb|A [[bilingual sign]] in Chinese (left) and Manchu (right) in the [[Forbidden City]]]]
[[File:Manchu script.jpg|thumb|''Manju hergen'' ("Manchu alphabet") in Manchu]]
{{RCL}}
{{Contains special characters|Manchu}}

The '''Manchu alphabet''' ({{lang-mnc|m={{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ}} {{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ}}|v=manju hergen|a=manju hergen}}) is the alphabet used to write the now critically endangered [[Manchu language]]. A similar script called Xibe script is used today by the [[Sibe people|Xibe people]], [[Xibe language|whose language]] is considered either a dialect of Manchu or a closely related, [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] language. It is written vertically from top to bottom, with columns proceeding from left to right.

== History ==
=== ''Tongki fuka akū hergen'' ===
The [[Jurchens]] of a [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|millennium ago]] became the ancestors of the Manchus when [[Nurhaci]] united the [[Jianzhou Jurchens]] (1593–1618) and his son subsequently renamed the consolidated tribes as the "Manchu". Throughout this period, the [[Jurchen language]] evolved into what we know as the [[Manchu language]]. The [[Jurchen script]] has no relation to the Manchu alphabet, as it was derived from the [[Khitan large script|Khitan script]], itself derived from Chinese characters. After the collapse of the Jin dynasty, the Jurchen script fell into disuse.

According to the ''{{ill|Veritable Records of Manchu|lt=Veritable Records|zh|满洲实录}}'' ({{Langx|mnc|{{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ{{nnbsp}}ᡳ}} {{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᠶᠠᡵᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ}} {{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᡴᠣᠣᠯᡳ}}|manju i yargiyan kooli|translit-std=mdorff}}; {{lang-zh|c=滿洲實錄|p=Mǎnzhōu Shílù}}), in 1599 the [[Jianzhou Jurchen|Jurchen]] leader [[Nurhaci]] decided to convert the [[Mongolian script|Mongolian alphabet]] to make it suitable for the Manchu people. He decried the fact that while illiterate Han Chinese and Mongolians could understand their respective languages when read aloud, that was not the case for the Manchus, whose documents were recorded by Mongolian scribes. Overriding the objections of two advisors named [[Erdeni]] and [[G'ag'ai]], he is credited with adapting the Mongolian script to Manchu. The resulting script was known as {{transliteration|mnc|tongki fuka akū hergen}} ({{Langx|mnc|{{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᡨ᠋ᠣᠩᡴᡳ}} {{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᡶ᠋ᡠᡴᠠ}} {{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᠠᡴᡡ}} {{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ}}}}) — the "script without dots and circles".

[[File:Aphai fulingga han chiha. Currency of the farther East. No.849.jpg|thumb|center|Coin of [[Nurhaci]], reading {{lang|mnc|Abkai fulingga han jiha}}, and written {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠪᡴᠠᡳ|lang=mnc}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡶ᠋ᠣᠯᡳᠩᡴᠠ|lang=mnc}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡴᠠᠨ|lang=mnc}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠵᡳᡴᠠ|lang=mnc}}}} without diacritics {{Nowrap|({{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠪᡴᠠᡳ|lang=mnc}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡶ᠋ᡠᠯᡳᠩᡤᠠ|lang=mnc}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡥᠠᠨ|lang=mnc}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠵᡳᡥᠠ|lang=mnc}}}} with later diacritics)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Theobald |first=Ulrich |title=Qing Period Money (www.chinaknowledge.de) |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/cash-qing.html |access-date=2023-09-16 |website=www.chinaknowledge.de |language=en}}</ref>]]

=== ''Tongki fuka sindaha hergen'' ===
In 1632, [[Dahai]] added [[diacritical marks]] to clear up a lot of the ambiguity present in the original Mongolian script; for instance, a leading ''k'', ''g'', and ''h'' are distinguished by the placement of no diacritical mark, a dot, and a circle, respectively. This revision created the standard script, known as {{lang|mnc|tongki fuka sindaha hergen}} ({{Lang-mnc|m={{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᡨ᠋ᠣᠩᡴᡳ}} {{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᡶ᠋ᡠᡴᠠ}} {{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᠰᡳᠨ᠋ᡩ᠋ᠠᡥᠠ}} {{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ}}}}) — the "script with dots and circles". As a result, the Manchu alphabet contains little ambiguity. Recently discovered manuscripts from the 1620s make clear, however, that the addition of dots and circles to Manchu script began before their supposed introduction by Dahai.

Dahai also added the ''tulergi hergen'' ("foreign/outer letters"): ten graphemes to facilitate Manchu to be used to write Chinese, Sanskrit, and Tibetan loanwords. Previously, these non-Manchu sounds did not have corresponding letters in Manchu.<ref>{{harvp|Gorelova|2002|page=50}}</ref>
Sounds that were transliterated included the aspirated sounds k' (Chinese pinyin: k, {{MongolUnicode|ᠺ|lang=mnc|valign=middle}}), k (g, {{MongolUnicode|ᡬ|lang=mnc|valign=middle}}), x (h, {{MongolUnicode|ᡭ|lang=mnc|valign=middle}}); ts' (c, {{MongolUnicode|ᡮ|lang=mnc|valign=middle}}); ts (ci, {{MongolUnicode|ᡮ᠊ᡟ|lang=mnc|valign=middle}}); sy (si, {{MongolUnicode|ᠰ᠊ᡟ|lang=mnc|valign=middle}}); dz (z, {{MongolUnicode|ᡯ|lang=mnc|valign=middle}}); c'y (chi, {{MongolUnicode|ᡱᡟ|lang=mnc|valign=middle}}); j'y (zhi, {{MongolUnicode|ᡷᡟ|lang=mnc|valign=middle}}); and ž (r, {{MongolUnicode|ᡰ|lang=mnc|valign=middle}}).<ref>{{harvp|Gorelova|2002|pages=71–72}}</ref>
<!-- Expand on these in the table of letters -->

=== 19th century – present ===
By the middle of the nineteenth century, there were three styles of writing Manchu in use: standard script (''ginggulere hergen''), semi-cursive script (''gidara hergen''), and cursive script (''lasihire hergen''). Semicursive script had less spacing between the letters, and cursive script had rounded tails.<ref>{{harvp|Gorelova|2002|page=72}}</ref>

The Manchu alphabet was also used to write Chinese. The way in which this was done is explained in ''Manchu: a Textbook for Reading Documents'', which has a comparative table of romanizations of Chinese syllables written in Manchu letters, [[Hànyǔ Pīnyīn]] and [[Wade–Giles]].<ref>{{harvp|Li|2000|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6fqJL619dlgC&q=Manchu+transliteration+of+Chinese+syllables+different+ways+versions 370]}}: Manchu transliteration of Chinese syllables Some Chinese syllables are transliterated in different ways. There may be additional versions to those listed below. *W-G stands for Wade-Giles</ref> Using the Manchu script to transliterate Chinese words is a source of loanwords for the [[Xibe language]].<ref>{{harvp|Li|2000|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6fqJL619dlgC&q=rules+govern+transliteration+of+chinese+words+into+manchu 294]}}: f) Transliteration of Chinese words and compounds. Though most Chinese words in Manchu are easily recognizable to students familiar with Chinese, it is helpful to remember the most important rules that govern the transliteration of Chinese words into Manchu.</ref> Several Chinese-Manchu dictionaries contain Chinese characters transliterated with Manchu script. The Manchu versions of the ''[[Thousand Character Classic]]'' and ''[[Dream of the Red Chamber]]'' are actually the Manchu transcription of all the Chinese characters.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MdT3AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA102 |title=Literary Migrations: Traditional Chinese Fiction in Asia (17th–20th Centuries) |date=2013 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=978-981-4414-32-6 |editor-last=Salmon |editor-first=Claudine |edition=reprint |series=Nalanda-Sriwijaya Series, vol. 19 |page=102 |language=en}}</ref>

In the ''Imperial Liao-Jin-Yuan Three Histories National Language Explanation'' ({{lang|zh|欽定遼金元三史國語解}} {{transliteration|zh|Qinding Liao Jin Yuan sanshi guoyujie}}) commissioned by the [[Qianlong Emperor]], the Manchu alphabet is used to write [[Evenki language|Evenki]] ([[Solon people|Solon]]) words. In the ''[[Pentaglot Dictionary]]'', also commissioned by the Qianlong Emperor, the Manchu alphabet is used to transcribe [[Classical Tibetan|Tibetan]] and [[Chagatai language|Chagatai]] (related to [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]) words.

== Alphabet ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="4" | Characters
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | Transliteration
! rowspan="2" | Notes
|-
! isolated
! initial
! medial
! final
|-
! colspan="7" | Vowels{{sfnp|Daniels|Bright|1996|p=551}}<ref>{{harvp|Gorelova|2002|page=59}}</ref>{{sfnp|Li|2010|pp=23, 27}}
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠠ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}<!-- Should look like initial e followed by a bar followed by final a -->
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠠ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠠ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠠ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|a}} {{IPAblink|a}}
| A second final form is used after {{Transliteration|mnc|b}} ({{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠪᠠ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|mnc|ba}}) and {{Transliteration|mnc|p}} ({{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡦᠠ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|mnc|pa}}).
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡝ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}<!-- Should look like initial e followed by 2nd final e -->
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡝ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡝ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}<!-- Should look like medial a with dot to the right -->
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡝ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}<!-- Should look like final a with dot to the right -->
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|e}} {{IPAblink|ə}}
| A second final form is used after {{Transliteration|mnc|b}} ({{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠪᡝ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|mnc|be}}) and {{Transliteration|mnc|p}} ({{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡦᡝ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|mnc|pe}}).
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡝ{{fvs|1}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}<!-- Should look like medial a without dot to the right -->
|{{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡝ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}<!-- Should look like final a without dot to the right -->
|The undotted medial form is used after {{Transliteration|mnc|k, g, h}} , {{Transliteration|mnc|d}} and {{Transliteration|mnc|t}}.
The final form is used after {{Transliteration|mnc|t}} ({{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡨᡝ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|mnc|te}}).
A second final form is used after {{Transliteration|mnc|k}} ({{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡴᡝ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|mnc|ka}}), {{Transliteration|mnc|g}} ({{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡤᡝ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|mnc|ga}}), and {{Transliteration|mnc|h}} ({{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡥᡝ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} {{Transliteration|mnc|ha}}).<ref>{{harvp|Gorelova|2002|page=53}}</ref>
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡳ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}<!-- Should look like initial e followed by final i -->
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡳ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡳ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡳ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|i}} {{IPAblink|i}}
| rowspan="2" |The second isolated form serves as [[genitive case]] marker.

The second medial form is used after vowels.
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|{{nnbsp}}ᡳ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Should look like final i. May not display correctly using Chrome. --> {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|[[File:Mongolian letter manchu I (final form).svg|frameless|upright=0.12]]}}}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡳ{{fvs|2}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᠣ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Should look like initial o, except the bar terminates at the end of the loop -->
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᠣ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠣ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠣ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Should look like medial o, except the bar terminates at the end of the loop -->
| rowspan="2" | 
| rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|o}} {{IPAblink|ɔ}}
| rowspan="2" | The bow-less final form is used in single-syllable words only.
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠣ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡠ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- All of these are the same as o, but with dot to the right -->
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡠ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} 
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡠ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡠ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| rowspan="2" | 
| rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|u}} {{IPAblink|u}}
| rowspan="2" | The dotless medial form is used after {{Transliteration|mnc|k, g, h, d, t}}.
The bow-less final form is used in single-syllable words only.
|-
|{{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡠ{{fvs|1}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| dotted {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠣ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡡ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Should look like initial e followed by final ū -->
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡡ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡡ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡡ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|ū/uu/v}} {{IPAblink|ʊ}}
| Denotes ''{{Transliteration|Mong|u}}'' after ''{{Transliteration|Mong|k}}'' [qʰ], ''{{Transliteration|Mong|g}}'' [q], ''{{Transliteration|Mong|h}}'' [χ].
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡟ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡟ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡟ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡟ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} 
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|y/y/i'}} {{IPAblink|ɨ}}
| Used in Chinese [[loanword]]s.
|-
| {{Gray|{{MongolUnicode|ᡳᠣᡳ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}}}<!-- Form not found in Daniels & Bright / Gorelova / Li. -->
| {{Gray|{{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᡳᠣᡳ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}}}}<!-- Form not found in Daniels & Bright / Gorelova / Li. It also renders differently between Noto and Baiti typefaces (final "i" with or without a preceding tooth). -->
| {{Gray|{{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡳᠣᡳ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}}}}<!-- Form not found in Daniels & Bright / Gorelova / Li. It also renders differently between Noto and Baiti typefaces (final "i" with or without a preceding tooth). -->
| {{Gray|{{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡳᠣᡳ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}}}<!-- Form not found in Daniels & Bright / Li. --><!-- Form found in Gorelova p. 64 -->
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|ioi}} {{IPAblink|y}}<!-- Gorelova p. 82? --><!-- Li2010 p. 300 -->
| Used in Chinese loanwords.
|-
! colspan="7" | Consonants{{sfnp|Daniels|Bright|1996|pp=551–552}}<ref>{{harvp|Gorelova|2002|page=70}}</ref>{{sfnp|Li|2010|pp=24–27}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᠨ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᠨ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠨ{{fvs|1}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠨ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|n}} {{IPAblink|n}}
| rowspan="2" | The dotted form is used before vowels; undotted form before consonants.

A dotted final form is used in some words of chinese origin.
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠨ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠩ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠩ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠩ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|ng}} {{IPAblink|ŋ}}
| The medial form is used before consonants.
|-
| rowspan="3" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡴ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡴ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡴ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡴ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|k}} {{IPAblink|qʰ}}
| rowspan="2" | The undotted medial form is used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a, o, ū}}''; dotted form before consonants.
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡴ{{fvs|1}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᢉ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡴ{{fvs|2}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡴ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|k}} {{IPAblink|kʰ}}
| Initial and medial forms are used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|e, i, u}}''.
|-
| rowspan="2"| {{MongolUnicode|ᡤ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡤ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡤ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|—
| 
| {{Transliteration|Mong|g}} {{IPAblink|q}}
| Used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a, o, ū}}''.
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡤ᠋᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡤ᠋᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|g}} {{IPAblink|k}}
| Used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|e, i, u}}''.
|-
| rowspan="2"| {{MongolUnicode|ᡥ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|{{MongolUnicode|ᡥ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Should look like initial k [k] with attached small circle to the right -->
|{{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡥ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Should look like medial k [k] with attached small circle to the right -->
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|h}} {{IPAblink|χ}}
| Used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a, o, ū}}''.
|-
| [[File:Mongolian letter sibe Ha (isolated form).svg|frameless|upright=0.12]]<!-- Stand-in for context-sensitive shape. --> <!--{{MongolUnicode||lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}--> <!-- Should look like initial k [k] with attached small circle to the right -->
| [[File:Mongolian letter sibe Ha (isolated form).svg|frameless|upright=0.12]]<!-- Stand-in for context-sensitive shape. --> <!--{{MongolUnicode||lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}--> <!-- Should look like medial k [k] with attached small circle to the right -->
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|h}} {{IPAblink|x}}
| Used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|e, i, u}}''.
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠪ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠪ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠪ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠪ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|b}} {{IPAblink|p}}
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡦ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡦ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Should look like initial b with zigzag bow -->
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡦ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Should look like medial b with zigzag bow -->
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|p}} {{IPAblink|pʰ}}
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠰ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠰ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠰ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠰ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|s}} {{IPAblink|s}}, {{IPAblink|ɕ}} before {{IPAblink|i}}
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡧ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡧ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡧ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|š}} {{IPAblink|ʃ}}, {{IPAblink|ɕ}} before {{IPAblink|i}}
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡨ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡨ{{fvs|1}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡨ{{fvs|1}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
| rowspan="3" |
| rowspan="3" | {{Transliteration|Mong|t}} {{IPAblink|tʰ}}
|
Used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a, o, ū, i}}''.
|-
| —
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡨ{{fvs|2}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Should look like first medial t, except the diagonal connecting to the small circle extends past the small circle -->
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡨ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|Medial form is used before consonants.
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡨ{{fvs|2}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}<!-- Should look like bar followed by first initial t -->
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡨ{{fvs|3}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
|Used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|e, u}}''.
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡩ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡩ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Should look like first initial t with dot to the right -->
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡩ{{fvs|1}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}<!-- Should look like second medial t with dot to the right -->
| rowspan="2" | —
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|d}} {{IPAblink|t}}
|
Used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a, o, ū, i}}''.
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡩ{{fvs|1}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Should look like second initial t with dot to the right -->
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡩ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}<!-- Should look like first medial t with dot to the right -->
|Used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|e, u}}''.
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠯ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠯ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠯ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠯ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|l}} {{IPAblink|l}}
| Initial and final forms usually exist in foreign words.
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠮ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠮ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠮ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠮ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|m}} {{IPAblink|m}}
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠴ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠴ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠴ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|c/ch/č/q}} {{IPAblink|t͡ʃʰ}}, {{IPAblink|t͡ɕʰ}} before {{IPAblink|i}}
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠵ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠵ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠵ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|j/zh/ž}} {{IPAblink|t͡ʃ}}, {{IPAblink|t͡ɕ}} before {{IPAblink|i}}
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠶ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠶ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠶ{{fvs|1}}᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Displaying correctly with an upturn, and incorrectly without as of Microsoft's Mongolian Baiti 5.53 and Google's Noto Sans Mongolian 2.003 fonts (See UTR #54, which applies to Unicode 15.1). --> {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|[[File:Mongolian letter Ya (medial form-2).svg|frameless|upright=0.12]]}}}}
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|y}} {{IPAblink|j}}
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠷ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡵ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡵ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡵ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|r}} {{IPAblink|r}}
| Initial and final forms exist mostly in foreign words.
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{MongolUnicode|ᡶ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡶ‍|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Should look like second initial f, except the diagonal line extends up and to the right -->
| {{MongolUnicode|‍ᡶ‍|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}} <!-- Should look like second medial f, except the diagonal line extends up and to the right -->
| rowspan="2" | —
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|f}} {{IPAblink|f}}
| rowspan="2" | First initial and medial forms are used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a, e}}'';<br>
second initial and medial forms are used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|i, o, u, ū}}''.
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡶ{{fvs|1}}‍|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|‍ᡶ{{fvs|1}}‍|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠸ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠸ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠸ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|v (w)}} {{IPAblink|w}}, {{IPAblink|v}}-
|
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠺ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᠺ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠺ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|k'/kk/k‘/k’}} {{IPAblink|kʰ}}
| Used for Chinese k [kʰ]. Used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a, o}}''.
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡬ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡬ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡬ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|g'/gg/ǵ/g’}} {{IPAblink|k}}
| Used for Chinese g [k]. Used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a, o}}''.
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡭ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡭ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡭ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|h'/hh/h́/h’}} {{IPAblink|x}}
| Used in Chinese h [x]. Used before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a, o}}''.
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡮ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡮ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡮ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|ts'/c/ts‘/c}} {{IPAblink|tsʰ}}
| Used in Chinese c [t͡sʰ].
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡯ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡯ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡯ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡯ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|dz/z/dz/z}} {{IPAblink|t͡s}}
| Used in Chinese z [t͡s].
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡰ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡰ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡰ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|ž/rr/ž/r’}} {{IPAblink|ʐ}}
| Used in Chinese r [ʐ].
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡱ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡱ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡱ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| —
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|c'/ch/c‘/c’}} {{IPAblink|tʂʰ}}
| Used in Chinese ch [tʂʰ] and chi/c'y [tʂʰɨ]
|-
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡷ|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|ᡷ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| {{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡷ᠊|lang=mnc|font-size=1.6em}}
| 
|
| {{Transliteration|Mong|j/zh/j̊/j’}} {{IPAblink|tʂ}}
| Used in Chinese zh [tʂ] and zhi/j'y [tʂɨ]
|}

== Method of teaching ==
Despite its alphabetic nature, the Manchu "alphabet" was traditionally taught as a [[syllabary]] to reflect its [[phonotactics]]. Manchu children were taught to memorize the shapes of all the syllables in the language separately as they learned to write<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saarela |first=Mårten Söderblom |title=Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919 |date=2014 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-27927-8 |editor-last=Elman |editor-first=Benjamin A. |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA169 169] |language=en |chapter=The Manchu Script and Information Management: Some Aspects of Qing China’s Great Encounter with Alphabetic Literacy}}</ref> and say right away "''la'', ''lo''", etc., instead of saying "''l'', ''a'' — ''la''"; "''l'', ''o'' — ''lo''"; etc. As a result, the syllables contained in their syllabary do not contain all possible combinations that can be formed with their letters. They made, for instance, no such use of the consonants ''l'', ''m'', ''n'' and ''r'' as English; hence if the Manchu letters ''s'', ''m'', ''a'', ''r'' and ''t'' were joined in that order, a Manchu would not pronounce them as "smart".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meadows |first=Thomas Taylor |title=Translations from the Manchu: With the Original Texts, Prefaced by an Essay on the Language |date=1849 |publisher=Press of S. Wells Williams |location=Canton |pages=[[iarchive:translationsfrom00meadrich/page/3|3]]}}</ref>

Today, it is still divided among experts on whether the Manchu script is alphabetic or syllabic. In China, it is considered syllabic, and Manchu is still taught in this manner, while in the West it is treated like an alphabet. The alphabetic approach is used mainly by foreigners who want to learn the language, as studying the Manchu script as a syllabary takes longer.<ref>{{harvp|Li|2000|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6fqJL619dlgC&q=Alphabet%3A+Some+scholars+consider+the+Manchu+script+to+be+a+syllabic+one. 16]}}: Alphabet: Some scholars consider the Manchu script to be a syllabic one.</ref><ref>{{harvp|Li|2010|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1bArr1-E5mQC&q=some+scholars+consider+script+syllabic+one+hundreds 16]}}: Alphabet: Some scholars consider the Manchu script to be a syllabic one. Others see it as having an alphabet with individual letters, some of which differ according to their position within a word. Thus, whereas Denis Sinor urged in favor of a syllabic theory, Louis Ligeti preferred to consider the Manchu script an alphabetical one.</ref>

=== Twelve ''uju'' ===
The syllables in Manchu are divided into twelve categories called ''uju'' (literally "head") based on their [[syllabic coda]]s (final [[phoneme]]s).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v6k-AAAAcAAJ&q=arranging+the+whole+under+twelve+classes+shews+the+stage+to+which+this+writing+had+arrived+during+the+reign+being+taken&pg=PR28 |title=Translation of the Ts'ing Wan K'e Mung, a Chinese Grammar of the Manchu Tartar Language; with Introductory Notes on Manchu Literature |publisher=London Mission Press |year=1855 |location=Shanghae |pages=xxvii– |language=en |translator-last=Wylie |translator-first=A.}}</ref><ref name="Ko1855">{{Cite book |last=Shou-p'ing Wu Ko |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdAOAAAAQAAJ&q=arranging+the+whole+under+twelve+classes+shews+the+stage+to+which+this+writing+had+arrived+during+the+reign+being+taken&pg=PR28 |title=Translation (by A. Wylie) of the Ts'ing wan k'e mung, a Chinese grammar of the Manchu Tartar language (by Woo Kĭh Show-ping, revised and ed. by Ching Ming-yuen Pei-ho) with intr. notes on Manchu literature |publisher=London Mission Press |year=1855 |location=Shanghae |pages=xxvii– |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite ECCP|title=Dahai}}</ref> Here lists the names of the twelve ''uju'' in their traditional order:<blockquote>a, ai, ar, an, ang, ak, as, at, ab, ao, al, am.</blockquote>Each ''uju'' contains syllables ending in the coda of its name. Hence, Manchu only allows nine final consonants for its closed syllables, otherwise a syllable is open with a monophthong (''a'' ''uju'') or a diphthong (''ai'' ''uju'' and ''ao'' ''uju'').The syllables in an ''uju'' are further sorted and grouped into three or two according to their similarities in pronunciation and shape. For example, ''a uju'' arranges its 131 licit syllables in the following order:<blockquote>a, e, i; o, u, ū; na, ne, ni; no, nu, nū;

ka, ga, ha; ko, go, ho; kū, gū, hū;

ba, be, bi; bo, bu, bū; pa, pe, pi; po, pu, pū;

sa, se, si; so, su, sū; ša, še, ši; šo, šu, šū;

ta, da; te, de; ti, di; to, do; tu, du;

la, le, li; lo, lu, lū; ma, me, mi; mo, mu, mū;

ca, ce, ci; co, cu, cū; ja, je, ji; jo, ju, jū; ya, ye; yo, yu, yū;

ke, ge, he; ki, gi, hi; ku, gu, hu; k'a, g'a, h'a; k'o, g'o, h'o;

ra, re, ri; ro, ru, rū;

fa, fe, fi; fo, fu, fū; wa, we;

ts'a, ts'e, ts; ts'o, ts'u; dza, dze, dzi, dzo, dzu;

ža, že, ži; žo, žu; sy, c'y, jy.</blockquote>In general, while syllables in the same row resemble each other phonetically and visually, syllables in the same group (as the semicolons separate) bear greater similarities.

== Punctuation ==
The Manchu alphabet has two kinds of punctuation: two dots ({{MongolUnicode|᠉|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}), analogous to a period; and one dot ({{MongolUnicode|᠈|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}), analogous to a comma. However, with the exception of lists of nouns being reliably punctuated by single dots, punctuation in Manchu is inconsistent, and therefore not of much use as an aid to readability.<ref>{{harvp|Li|2000|page=21}}</ref>

The equivalent of the question mark in Manchu script consists of some [[interrogative|special]] [[Grammatical particle|particles]], written at the end of the question.<ref>{{harvp|Gorelova|2002|page=74}}</ref>

== Flaws ==
The Manchu script was created by referencing Mongolian script letters. Although the Old Manchu script underwent reforms and improvements to form the New Manchu script, it still inherited a series of flaws from the Old Uyghur-style Mongolian script. For instance, the writing of letters varies depending on their position at the beginning, middle, or end of a word, and the distinguishability between letters is low.

To learn Manchu, one must first study the "Twelve Syllable Sets" (a syllabary) and memorize the shapes of all syllables in the language separately, which increases the learning burden. Due to the varied directions of the tooth-like structures in Manchu script, some letters have tail forms that extend to the left, while others extend to the right in their word-final forms. This results in wider line spacing, occupying more space, and increasing paper usage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manchu alphabet and language |url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/manchu.htm |access-date=2026-04-19 |website=www.omniglot.com}}</ref> For example, in ancient books from the Qing Dynasty such as the ''[[Pentaglot Dictionary]]'', the Manchu and Mongolian sections (with the Manchu section in the ''Imperially-Compiled Augmented Manchu-Chinese Dictionary''《御制增订清文鉴》 occupying a larger portion of the page space) demonstrate this issue.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/06079666.cn |title=御製增訂清文鑑·卷一 |others=浙江大学图书馆}}</ref>

== Unicode ==
The Manchu alphabet is included in the Unicode block for Mongolian.

{{Unicode chart Mongolian}}

== See also ==
* [[Mongolian script]]
* [[Transliterations of Manchu]]
*[[Clear Script]]

{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Daniels |first=Peter T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ |title=The World's Writing Systems |last2=Bright |first2=William |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507993-7 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gorelova |first=Liliya M. |title=Manchu Grammar |date=2002 |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-12307-5 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Li |first=Gertraude Roth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6fqJL619dlgC |title=Manchu: A Textbook for Reading Documents |date=2000 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=0-8248-2206-4 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Li |first=Gertraude Roth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1bArr1-E5mQC |title=Manchu: A Textbook for Reading Documents |date=2010 |publisher=National Foreign Language Resource Center |isbn=978-0-9800459-5-6 |edition=Second |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Saarela |first=Marten Soderblom |title=The Early Modern Travels of Manchu: A Script and Its Study in East Asia and Europe |date=2020 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-9693-8 |language=en}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{wikibooks|Manchu}}
* [http://abkai.net/core/en Abkai — Unicode Manchu/Sibe/Daur Fonts and Keyboards] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914010216/http://abkai.net/core/en |date=2016-09-14 }}
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/manchu.htm Manchu alphabet]
* [http://www.anakv.com/eng/ Manchu script generator (Romanization → Manchu script (also for download))] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127121417/http://anakv.com/eng/ |date=2023-01-27 }}
* [https://sourceforge.net/projects/manchufont/ ManchuFont] — an [[OpenType]] font for Manchu writing
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/jurchen.htm Jurchen Script]

{{list of writing systems}}

[[Category:Alphabets]]
[[Category:Manchu language|Alphabet]]
[[Category:1590s introductions]]
[[Category:1599 beginnings]]
[[Category:Letters with final form]]