<?xml version="1.0"?>

<chapter xml:id="java-programs">

<title>Java Programs</title>

<section xml:id="sec-lets-look-at-a-java-program">

<title>Lets look at a Java Program</title>

<p>

A time-honored tradition in Computer Science is to write a program called &#x201C;Hello World.&#x201D; The &#x201C;Hello World&#x201D; program is simple and easy.

There are no logic errors to make, so getting it to run relies only on understanding the syntax.

To be clear, lets look at a &#x201C;complicated&#x201D; version of hello world for Python in <xref ref="python-hello-world" text="type-global"/>.

</p>

<listing xml:id="python-hello-world">

<program interactive="activecode" language="python">

<code>

def main():

print("Hello World!")

</code>

</program>

</listing>

<p>

Remember that we can define this program right at the Python command line and then run it with <c>main()</c> Try it in <xref ref="python-hello-world" text="type-global"/>.

</p>

<p>

The command line interface of the program is shown in <xref ref="python-hello-world-run" text="type-global"/>.

</p>

<listing xml:id="python-hello-world-run">

<program language="python">

<code>

&gt;&gt;&gt; main()

Hello World! </code>

</program>

</listing>

<p>

Now let's look at the same program written in Java:

</p>

<listing xml:id="java-world">

<program interactive="activecode" language="java">

<code>

public class Hello {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println("Hello World!");

}

}

</code> <tests> </tests>

</program>

</listing>

<p>

Based on <xref ref="java-world" text="type-global"/>, what we see in the code is that at the core there are a few similarities, such as a main and the string &#x201C;Hello World&#x201D;. However, there is a lot more stuff around the edges that make it harder to see the core of the program. Do not worry! An important skill for a computer scientist is to learn what to ignore and what to look at carefully. You will soon find that there are some elements of Java that will fade into the background as you become used to seeing them.

</p>

<p>

<idx>interpreter</idx>

<idx>compile</idx>

The first question you probably have about this little program is &#x201C;How do I run it?&#x201D; Running a Java program is not as simple as running a Python program. The first thing you need to do with a Java program is compile it. The first big difference between Java and Python is that Python is an interpreted language. We could run our Python programs in the Python <term>interpreter</term> and we were quite happy to do that. Java makes running programs a two step process. First we must type the hello world program into a file and save that file using the name <c>Hello.java</c> The file name must be the same as the public class you define in the file. Once we have saved the file we <term>compile</term> it from the command line as <xref ref="java-javac" text="type-global"/>.

</p>

<listing xml:id="java-javac">

<program language="java">

<code>

$ javac Hello.java

$ ls -l Hello.*

-rw-r--r-- 1 bmiller bmiller 391 Jul 19 17:47 Hello.class

-rw-r--r-- 1 bmiller bmiller 117 Jul 19 17:46 Hello.java

</code>

</program>

</listing>

<p>

The command <c>javac</c> compiles our java source code into compiled byte code and saves it in a file called <c>Hello.class</c>.

<c>Hello.class</c> is a binary file so you won&#x2019;t learn much if you try to examine the class file with an editor.

Hopefully you didn&#x2019;t make any mistakes, but if you did you may want to consult the <xref ref="common-mistakes-id1"/> section for helpful hints on compiler errors.

</p>

<p>

Now that we have compiled our java source code we can run the compiled code using the <c>java</c> command as per <xref ref="java-run-hello" text="type-global"/>.

</p>

<listing xml:id="java-run-hello">

<program language="java">

<code>

$ java Hello

Hello World!

$

</code>

</program>

</listing>

<p>

Now you may be wondering what good is that extra step? What does compiling do for us? There are a couple of important benefits we get from compiling:

</p>

<p>

<ul>

<li>

<p>

Early detection of errors

</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>

Faster program execution

</p>

</li>

</ul>

</p>

<p>

<idx>JVM</idx>

<idx>byte code</idx>

The job of the compiler is to turn your java code into language that the Java Virtual Machine (<term>JVM</term>) can understand.

JVM is a <term>bytecode</term> interpreter that allows Java programs to run on any platform without having to modify them.

The JVM interprets the byte code much like the Python interpreter does with Python.

However since byte code is much closer to the native language of the computer it can run faster.

</p>

<p>

When the compiler does the translation it can find many different kinds of errors.

For example, if you make a typo, the compiler will find the typo and point it out to you before you ever run the program.

We will look at some examples of compiler errors shortly.

Chances are you will create some on your own very soon, too.

</p>

<p>

Now that we have run our hello world program, lets go back and look at it carefully to see what we can learn about the Java language.

This simple example illustrates a few very important rules:

</p>

<p>

<ol marker="1">

<li>

<p>

Every Java program must define a class, and all code is inside a class

</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>

Everything in Java must have a type

</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>

Every Java program must have a function called <c>public static void main(String[] args)</c>

</p>

</li>

</ol>

</p>

<p>

Lets take the hello world example a line at a time to see how these rules are applied.

On line 1 we see that we are declaring a class called Hello:

</p>

<program xml:id="java-hello-first-line" language="java">

<code>

public class Hello {

</code>

</program>

<p>

As rule 1 says all Java code resides inside a class.

Unlike Python where a program can simply be a bunch of statements in a file, Java programs must be inside a class.

So, we define a class <c>Hello</c>, which is not a very useful class because it has no instance variables, and only one method.

You will also notice the curly brace <c>{</c>.

In Java, blocks of code are identified by pairs of curly braces.

The block starts with a <c>{</c> and ends with a <c>}</c>.

You will notice that I indented my code that followed the left brace, but in Java this is only done by convention, it is not enforced.

</p>

<p>

On the next line we start our method definition.

The name of this method is:

</p>

<program xml:id="java-public-static-void" language="java">

<code>

public static void main(String[] args)

</code>

</program>

<p>

Everything on this line is significant, and helps in the identification of this method.

For example the following lines look similar but are in fact treated by Java as completely different methods:

</p>

<p>

<ul>

<li>

<p>

<c>public void main(String[] args)</c>

</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>

<c>public static void main(String args)</c>

</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>

<c>public static void main()</c>

</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>

<c>void main(String args)</c>

</p>

</li>

</ul>

</p>

<p>

Just digging in to this one line will take us deep into the world of Java, so we are going to start digging but we are not going to dig too deeply right away.

Much of what could be revealed by this one line is better understood through other examples, so be patient.

</p>

<p>

<idx><c>public</c></idx>

<idx><c>protected</c></idx>

<idx><c>private</c></idx>

The first word, <term>public</term> indicates to the Java compiler that this is a method that anyone can call.

We will see that Java enforces several levels of security on the methods we write, including public, <term>protected</term>, and <term>private</term> methods.

</p>

<p><idx><c>static</c></idx>

The next word, <term>static</term> tells Java that this is a method that is part of the class, but is not a method for any one instance of the class.

The kind of methods we typically wrote in Python required an instance in order for the method to be called.

With a static method, the object to the left of the <c>.</c> is a class, not an instance of the class.

For example, the way that we would call the <c>main</c> method directly is: <c>Hello.main(parameter1)</c>.

For now, you can think of static methods the same way you think of methods in Python modules that don&#x2019;t require an instance, for example the math module contains many methods: sin, cos, etc.

You probably evaluated these methods using the names <c>math.cos(90)</c> or <c>math.sin(60)</c>.

</p>

<p><idx><c>void</c></idx>

The next word, <term>void</term> tells the Java compiler that the method <c>main</c> will not return a value.

This is roughly analogous to omitting the return statement in a Python method.

In other words, the method will run to completion and exit but will not return a value that you can use in an assignment statement.

As we look at other examples we will see that every Java function must tell the compiler what kind of an object it will return.

This is in keeping with the rule that says everything in Java must have a type.

In this case we use the special type called <c>void</c> which means no type.

</p>

<p><idx><c>main</c></idx>

Next we have the proper name for the method: <term>main</term>.

The rules for names in Java are similar to the rules in Python.

Names can include letters, numbers, and the <c>_</c>.

Names in Java must start with a letter.

</p>

<p>

Finally, we have the parameter list for the method.

In this example we have one parameter.

The name of the parameter is <c>args</c>, however, because everything in Java must have a type, we also have to tell the compiler that the value of <c>args</c> is an array of strings.

For the moment you can just think of an array as being the same thing as a list in Python.

The practical benefit of declaring that the method <c>main</c> must accept one parameter and the parameter must be an array of strings is that if you call <c>main</c> somewhere else in your code and and pass it an array of integers or even a single string, the compiler will flag it as an error.

</p>

<p>

That is a lot of new material to digest in only a single line of Java! Lets press on and look at the next line:

</p>

<program xml:id="java-println" language="java">

<code>

System.out.println("Hello World!");

</code>

</program>

<p>

This line should look a bit more familiar to you.

Python and Java both use the dot notation for finding names.

In this example we start with <c>System</c>.

System is a class.

Within the system class we find the object named <c>out</c>.

The <c>out</c> object is the standard output stream for this program.

Having located the <c>out</c> object Java will now call the method named <c>println(String s)</c> on that object.

The <c>println</c> method prints a string and adds a newline character at the end.

Anywhere in Python that you used the <c>print</c> function you will use the <c>System.out.println</c> method in Java.

</p>

<p>

Now there is one more character on this line that is significant and that is the <c>;</c> at the end.

In Java the <c>;</c> signifies the end of a statement.

Java statements can spread across many lines, but the compiler knows it has reached the end of a statement when it encounters a <c>;</c>.

In Python, it is not required (or recommend) to use semicolons in this way, but whitespace is meaningful.

In contrast, in Java semicolons are <term>required</term> to end statements, but whitespace is not considered meaningful.

This is a very important difference to remember! In Java, the statements in <xref ref="java-messy-code" text="type-global"/> are all legal and equivalent.

I would not encourage you to write your code like this, but you should know that it is legal.

</p>

<listing xml:id="java-messy-code">

<program language="java">

<code>

System.out.println("Hello World");

System.out.println("Hello World")

;

System.out.println

(

"Hello World"

) ;

System.

out.

println("Hello World")

;

</code>

</program>

</listing>

<p>

The last two lines of the hello world program simply close the two blocks using <c>}</c>.

The first or outer block is the class definition.

The second or inner block is the function definition.

</p>

<p>

If we wanted to translate the Java back to Python we would have something like <xref ref="python-static-method" text="type-global"/> class definition.

</p>

<listing xml:id="python-static-method">

<program interactive = "activecode" language="python">

<code>

class Hello(object):

@staticmethod

def main(args):

print("Hello World!")

</code>

</program>

</listing>

<p>

Notice that we used the decorator <c>@staticmethod</c> to tell the Python interpreter that <c>main</c> is going to be a static method.

The impact of this is that we don&#x2019;t have to, indeed we should not, use <c>self</c> as the first parameter of the main method! Using this definition we can call the main method in a Python session with <c>Hello.main("")</c>. Try it in <xref ref="python-static-method" text="type-global"/>.

</p>

<p>

The command line interface of the program is shown in <xref ref="python-static-method-run" text="type-global"/>.

</p>

<listing xml:id="python-static-method-run">

<program language="python">

<code>

&gt;&gt;&gt; Hello.main("")

Hello World!

</code>

</program>

</listing>

</section>

<section xml:id="lets_look_java_program_summary">

<title>Summary &amp; Reading Questions</title>

<p><ol label="1">

<li>

<p>Java programs must be compiled before execution, unlike Python which is interpreted directly.</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>Every Java program must define a <c>class</c>, and all code must be inside that class.</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>Each Java program must include a <c>public static void main(String[] args)</c> method as the entry point.</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>Java enforces that every variable and method must have a clearly defined type, including <c>void</c> for methods that return nothing.</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>Statements in Java must end with a semicolon (<c>;</c>), and whitespace is not syntactically meaningful.</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>Java uses dot notation to access class members, such as <c>System.out.println</c> for output.</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>The <c>static</c> keyword indicates that a method belongs to the class itself, rather than to an instance of the class.</p>

</li>

</ol></p>

<reading-questions xml:id="rqs-hello-java">

<exercise label="hello-java-1">

<statement>

<p>Which of the following must be true of every Java program?</p>

</statement>

<choices>

<choice>

<statement><p>It must contain a method called <c>main()</c> with no parameters.</p></statement>

<feedback><p>No. The main method must include a specific parameter: <c>String[] args</c>.</p></feedback>

</choice>

<choice correct="yes">

<statement><p>It must include a <c>public static void main(String[] args)</c> method inside a class.</p></statement>

<feedback><p>Correct! This is the required entry point for all Java applications.</p></feedback>

</choice>

<choice>

<statement><p>It must be saved with a <c>.exe</c> extension.</p></statement>

<feedback><p>No. Java source files use the <c>.java</c> extension and compile to <c>.class</c>.</p></feedback>

</choice>

<choice>

<statement><p>It must be run using the Python interpreter.</p></statement>

<feedback><p>No. Java uses its own compiler and Java Virtual Machine (JVM).</p></feedback>

</choice>

</choices>

</exercise>

<exercise label="hello-java-2">

<statement>

<p>What is the purpose of the <c>javac</c> command?</p>

</statement>

<choices>

<choice correct="yes">

<statement><p>To compile Java source code into bytecode</p></statement>

<feedback><p>Exactly! <c>javac</c> compiles <c>.java</c> files into <c>.class</c> files.</p></feedback>

</choice>

<choice>

<statement><p>To run a Python program</p></statement>

<feedback><p>No. Python programs are run with the <c>python</c> or <c>python3</c> command.</p></feedback>

</choice>

<choice>

<statement><p>To debug Java programs</p></statement>

<feedback><p>No. <c>javac</c> only compiles code. Debugging is a separate process.</p></feedback>

</choice>

<choice>

<statement><p>To edit Java source files</p></statement>

<feedback><p>No. You use a text editor or IDE to edit Java files.</p></feedback>

</choice>

</choices>

</exercise>

<exercise label="hello-java-3">

<statement>

<p>What symbol does Java use to indicate the end of a statement?</p>

</statement>

<choices>

<choice>

<statement><p><c>#</c></p>

</statement>

<feedback>

<p>No. <c>#</c> is used for comments in Python, not for statement termination.</p>

</feedback>

</choice>

<choice correct="yes">

<statement><p><c>;</c></p>

</statement>

<feedback>

<p>Correct! Java uses semicolons to mark the end of a statement.</p>

</feedback>

</choice>

<choice>

<statement><p><c>.</c></p>

</statement>

<feedback>

<p>No. <c>.</c> is used for dot notation, not to end a statement.</p>

</feedback>

</choice>

<choice>

<statement><p><c>}</c></p>

</statement>

<feedback>

<p>No. <c>}</c> is used to close code blocks.</p>

</feedback>

</choice>

</choices>

</exercise>

<exercise xml:id="java-name-color-parsons-exercise" label="java-name-color-parsons">

<statement>

<p>

Construct a complete Java program that prints your name and your favorite color to the console.

Drag the blocks into the correct order on the right.

</p>

</statement>

<blocks>

<block order="1">

<choice correct="yes">

<cline>public class NameColor {</cline>

</choice>

<choice correct="no">

<cline>class NameColor {</cline>

</choice>

</block>

<block order="2">

<choice correct="yes">

<cline> public static void main(String[] args) {</cline>

</choice>

<choice correct="no">

<cline> public static main(String[] args) {</cline>

</choice>

</block>

<block order="3">

<choice correct="yes">

<cline> System.out.println("Name: Alex");</cline>

<cline> System.out.println("Favorite Color: Blue");</cline>

</choice>

<choice correct="no">

<cline> system.out.println(Name: Alex);</cline>

<cline> System.out.println("Favorite Color: Blue")</cline>

</choice>

</block>

<block order="4">

<cline> }</cline>

<cline>}</cline>

</block>

</blocks>

</exercise>

</reading-questions>

</section>

<section xml:id="naming-conventions">

<title>Naming Conventions</title>

<p>

It is worth pointing out that Java has some very handy naming conventions. It is advisable to both use meaningful names and to follow these naming conventions while developing software in Java for good maintenance and readability of code.

</p>

<p>

<ul>

<li>

<p>

Class names should be nouns that are written in UpperCamelCase, namely with the first letter of each word capitalized including the first.

For example, <c>ArrayList</c>, <c>Scanner</c>, <c>StringBuilder</c>, <c>System</c>, etc.

</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>

Method names use lowerCamelCase which start with a verb that describes the action they perform. This means that method names start with a lower case letter, and use upper case for each internal-word method names. For example, <c>isInt()</c>, <c>nextLine()</c>, <c>getDenominator()</c>, <c>setNumerator()</c>, etc.

</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>

Instance variables of a class start with a lower case letter and use lowerCamelCase like method names. For example, <c>count</c>, <c>totalAmount</c>, etc.

</p>

</li>

<li>

<p>

Constants are in all upper case letters or in upper snake case, which also known as screaming snake case, and which is a naming convention in which each word is written in uppercase letters, separated by underscores.

For example, <c>Math.MAXINT</c> or <c>MAX_INT</c>.

</p>

</li>

</ul>

</p>

<exercise label="mcq-java-vs-python-variable-names">

<statement>

<p>

Which of the following is a valid variable name according to the core syntax rules of Java, but causes a syntax error in Python?

</p>

</statement>

<choices>

<choice>

<statement><c>_variableName</c></statement>

<feedback>

<p>

Incorrect. Leading underscores are valid in both Java and Python (commonly used in Python for private/protected attributes).

</p>

</feedback>

</choice>

<choice>

<statement><c>variable_name</c></statement>

<feedback>

<p>

Incorrect. Snake_case names with underscores are valid in both languages (and are actually standard convention in Python).

</p>

</feedback>

</choice>

<choice correct="yes">

<statement><c>$variableName</c></statement>

<feedback>

<p>

Correct! Java allows the dollar sign (<c>$</c>) in variable names, but Python generates a <c>SyntaxError</c> because <c>$</c> is not a permitted identifier character in Python.

</p>

</feedback>

</choice>

<choice>

<statement><c>variableName2</c></statement>

<feedback>

<p>

Incorrect. Numbers at the end of variable names are valid syntax in both Java and Python.

</p>

</feedback>

</choice>

</choices>

</exercise>

</section>

</chapter>