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Many-coloured fruit dove

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Many-coloured fruit dove
Temporal range: Quaternary
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Columbiformes
Family: Columbidae
Genus: Ptilinopus
Species:
P. perousii
Binomial name
Ptilinopus perousii
Peale, 1849
Subspecies
  • P. p. perousii
  • P. p. mariae

The many-coloured fruit dove (Ptilinopus perousii), also known as manuma in the Samoan language, is a species of bird in the family Columbidae.[2][3] It occurs on islands in the south-west Pacific Ocean where it is found in Fiji, the Samoan Islands, and Tonga. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. Today, the birds are most often found in Fiji and Tonga.[4] It usually feeds high in the canopy on fruit and berries, especially banyan fig. The nest is a small platform of twigs where one white egg is laid.[5]

Description

[edit]
Female, Vuna, Taveuni, Fiji Isles

It is a small dove, 23 cm (9.1 in) in length. Adults weigh about 90 g (3.2 oz).[5] The male is mostly pale yellow-white with a red crown and red bar across the back. The female is mostly green, darker on the back and greyer on the head and breast. Her crown is red while the undertail-coverts are red in Samoan birds and yellow in birds from Fiji and Tonga.

Male Ptilinopus perousii perousii is pale on the bottom and yellow on top. There is also a crimson band and corona. The female is said to resemble the purple-capped fruit dove; however, there is no yellow band. They have grey on the bottom while green on top. It only has a crimson corona unlike the male.[3]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]
Male, Matei, Taveuni, Fiji Isles

Manuma are found across many islands and archipelagos across Polynesia with a range of 660,000 square kilometres (250,000 sq mi).[6] They can be found in lowland subtropical and tropical broadleaf forests.[5] In these forests, they are found in the canopies. They can also be found in urban areas.[7] The manuma's fossil range is from 0.12 million years ago to today, exclusively in the quaternary.[8]

Behaviour and ecology

[edit]

Diet

[edit]

The many-coloured fruit dove is a frugivore. It forages the canopies of trees in search of figs. On Samoa and American Samoa it is mostly the banyan. This strict diet keeps the two fig species in check; however, any decline in the amount of figs may be a disaster for the many-coloured fruit dove.[4] On Fiji and Tonga, many-coloured fruit doves are known to eat the fruit of ylang ylang (Cananga odorata), bishop wood (Bischofia javanica), and māgele (Trema cannabina).[3]: 105, 128 

Social

[edit]

Many-coloured fruit doves are often found in small flocks. In each flock there are normally more males than females.[3]

Taxonomy

[edit]

The many-coloured fruit dove is in the columbid family with the other doves and pigeons. It a fruit dove belonging to genus Ptilinopus. However, it is very far from most other doves and has no close relatives due to it being endemic to the South Pacific islands.[5]

Etymology

[edit]

Its English name is literal; it is a many-coloured dove that eats fruit. The Samoan name manuma means shy bird and comes from the Samoan words for bird and shame.[9][10] The Latin name comes from Captain Jean Francois de Galaup Comte de la Pérouse of the French navy, who explored the Pacific.[11]

Subspecies

[edit]

The two subspecies are Ptilinopus perousii mariae and P. p. perousii. Nominate P. p. perousii is found on Samoa (Savai'i, Upolu, Tutuila, Ofu, and Tau), and subspecies P. p. mariae is found in Fiji and Tonga.[12]

Description to Western Science

[edit]

The Many-coloured fruit dove is unusual taxonomically because its first encounter with Western naturalists happened decades before its formal scientific description. Additionally, the bird already had a name, a place in Samoan society, and a cultural meaning for the Indigenous people of the Samoan Islands long before an American naturalist gave it a Latin name.[13] Anthropologist Serge Tcherkézoff identifies the bird encountered by the French in 1787 as the Samoan manumā, later named Ptilinopus perousii by the naturalist of the United States Exploring Expedition.[13]

La Pérouse Expedition (c.1787)

[edit]

In December 1787, the French explorer Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse, arrived in the Samoan Islands. La Pérouse commanded the French expedition aboard the frigate La Boussole, accompanied by L'Astrolabe, which was commanded by Paul-Antoine Fleuriot de Langle.[14]

Louis XVI, seated at right, giving La Pérouse his instructions on 29 June 1785. Louis XVI Giving His Instructions to La Pérouse by Nicolas-André Monsiau (1817). (Château de Versailles)

King Louis XVI had commissioned the expedition in 1785 as a voyage of scientific discovery around the world. Inspired by the expeditions of men like James Cook and the general sensibilities of the Age of Scientific Exploration, La Pérouse's expedition carried scientists and artists and was equipped with scientific instruments and a library of reference works.[14] Its scientists were expected to study the geography and natural history of the new places they discovered, and were also expected to carefully record the people they encountered and their observed customs.[14]

This was a time in broader Western European cultures-- immediately following the Age of Discovery and the Age of Enlightenment-- when studies of biology, anthropology, geography, and taxonomy were all classified as the generalised "natural history".[15] Because of this grouping of studies, La Pérouse's instructions from the French Government specifically directed him to observe the inhabitants of the places he visited, to interact with them as much as possible, and to collect and classify objects used by the people he encountered.[15][16]

18th-century copper engraving titled "Massacre of De Langle, Lemanon & Ten Others of the Two Crews", published around 1797–1798 as part of the official atlas for the Pacific voyage of French explorer Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse.
Engraving of the death of Commander de Langle and 12 men at Massacre Bay (c. 1787). Engraving titled "Massacre of De Langle, Lemanon & Ten Others of the Two Crews", published in the atlas Charts and Plates to La Pérouse's Voyage around the World, published around 1797.

The expedition's brief stop at Samoa was complicated.[13] The expedition arrived in what they called the Navigator Islands on December 6th, 1787.[13] They stopped at an island they called Maouna on the same day, and made contact with the indigenous Samoans almost immediately.[17] On December 11th, 1787, shortly before the expedition planned to depart from Samoa, a party commanded by de Langle went ashore in search of fresh water.[13] A violent confrontation followed, and de Langle, Robert de Lamanon, and 10 other members of the expedition were killed at Massacre Bay.[13] Before this violence, however, the French explorers had recorded peaceful exchanges with Samoans.[13] La Pérouse's posthumously-published account describes Samoan canoes approaching the ships and bringing provisions and other objects for exchange.[13]

Among the objects the Samoans brought aboard was something that fascinated La Pérouse: a remarkably colourful and tame little dove. His published account describes it as an "exceptionally charming turtle dove" that was "tame enough to eat from a person's hand and even from the mouth".[13] La Pérouse's detailed description was compared with the known characteristics of Ptilinopus perousii and modern anthropologists and historians have identified the dove as the Samoan manumā, also known in historical sources by other names.[13]

To La Pérouse, a French naturalist, the dove was a remarkable and unique specimen. To the Samoans who presented it, it appears to have carried a different significance.[13] Anthropologists believe that the manumā was associated with high chiefs and was kept as a special or sacred pet rather than being treated as food.[13]

La Pérouse himself did not give the bird the scientific name Ptilinopus perousii. That came roughly half a century later, when American naturalist Titian Ramsay Peale described the species as part of the United States Exploring Expedition.[18]

United States Exploring Expedition (c. 1839)

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Copper plate engraving of Ptilinopus perousii (listed as "Ptilouopus Perousei") published in 1858 by J. B. Lippincott & Co.
Copper plate engraving of Ptilinopus perousii (listed as "Ptilouopus Perousei") published in 1858 by J. B. Lippincott & Co. Original drawing was created by American naturalist Titian Ramsay Peale based on his observations during the United States Exploring Expedition. In 1858, John Cassin prepared the ornithological volume of the expedition's publication, and New York engraver Robert Hinshelwood produced this copper printing plate from Peale's drawing.

The United States Exploring Expedition reached the Samoan Islands in October 1839.[18] Authorised by an act of Congress in 1836, the expedition was commanded by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes of the United States Navy.[18] The expedition was intended to survey and explore the Pacific Ocean and South Seas, a region that was becoming increasingly important to American traders and whalers.[19][20] Its scientific corps included Peale and another naturalist Charles Pickering, conchologist Joseph Pitty Couthouy, mineralogist James Dwight Dana, botanists William Rich and William Dunlop Brackenridge, and linguist Horatio Hale.[18] Artists Joseph Drayton and Alfred Thomas Agate also accompanied the expedition.[18][21]

By the time of the United States Exploring Expedition, natural history had become an increasingly systematic field of study.[22] The expedition's scientists collected specimens, artifacts, and observations throughout the voyage, and the material was later organised into scientific publications and museum collections.[22][23] Peale was particularly well suited to this work: he has been described as an experienced field naturalist, taxidermist, illustrator, and collector.[24] During the expedition, he collected thousands of specimens, including 2,150 birds, and produced numerous drawings and paintings.[24] Peale also produced the original drawing that became the basis for the bird's published illustration.[25]

One of the birds collected during the expedition was the many-coloured fruit dove.[26] The Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History's birds division of Vertebrate Zoology identifies the original type specimen as an adult male collected on Upolu, Samoa, under the expedition field number 551.[26] The specimen is now catalogued as Smithsonian USNM Number A14828.[26] The catalogue identifies "Upolu" as the restricted type locality and notes that this was the only specimen of the original series from that locality.[26]

Formal Description (c.1849)

[edit]

Modern taxonomic authorities cite the species as Ptilinopus perousii (Peale, TR, 1849)[12]

The formal name appeared in Peale's 1849 report on the mammals and birds of the United States Exploring Expedition as Ptilinopus perousii.[27] However, the volume itself bears the date 1848, which is why some references give 1848 as its imprint year.[18]

The name perousii was chosen in reference to La Pérouse.[13] The two European-American expeditions to Samoa were not affiliated, but accounts of La Pérouse's voyage had entered the published literature long before the United States Exploring Expedition set sail.[28]

After La Pérouse and his expedition vanished into the Pacific Ocean in 1788, The National Assembly formally ordered that all his remaining documentation of the expedition should be collected, compiled, and published at public expense as a record of the lost expedition.[29] The account of the expedition, edited together by Louis Marie de Milet de Mureau, was submitted to the National Assembly on 22 April, 1791. The French government published Voyage de La Pérouse autour du monde in 1791, based on the La Pérouse's expedition's surviving records, and the work was subsequently reprinted and translated into several languages. It was also published in English under the title A Voyage Round the World- In The Years 1785, 1786, 1787 and 1788.[30] La Pérouse's entire journey was told in three volumes to English-readers (Volume I,[30] Volume II,[31] and Volume III[17]), which were publicly available by 1798.

Ptilinopus perousii (listed as Ptilinopus peyrousei) featured as No. 2 in a chromolithograph plate of "Tauben" from the 1898 edition of Brockhaus's Conversation Lexicon.

While the surviving scholarship does not provide a separate document showing exactly when Peale first read La Pérouse's account or when he decided personally to use the name, it was considered fairly expected that 19th-century naturalists would be familiar with the previous European explorers that had visited the locations before them, and naming species in their honor was not uncommon.[32] Charles Darwin, for example, had access to Voyage de La Pérouse autour du monde while aboard the HMS Beagle.[32]

Peale also produced the original drawing that became the basis for the bird's published illustration.[25] In 1858, John Cassin prepared the ornithological volume of the expedition's publication, and New York engraver Robert Hinshelwood produced a copper printing plate from Peale's drawing.[25] The Smithsonian's National Museum of American History preserves that original plate.[25] In the plate, the bird is identified as "Ptilonopus perousei", the historical spelling used at the time.[25] The plate was published as Plate No. 33 in Volume VIII, Mammalogy and Ornithology, in 1858, produced by Philadelphian printers J. B. Lippincott & Co.[25]

Indigenous Names and Traditional Uses

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In Samoa, the bird was known as manumā, a Samoan name that is generally understood as meaning a "shy bird".[33] It was also considered too small to be a desirable hunting target compared with larger pigeons such as the lupe.[34]

Modern ethnobiological research shows that Samoan names for the bird have varied between islands and through time, and that the term "manumā" has sometimes also been applied to the tooth-billed pigeon.[33] The National Park Service, however, identifies manumā as specifically the Indigenous name for the many-coloured fruit dove in American Samoa.[34]

The historical evidence examined by anthropologist Serge Tcherkézoff suggests that the manumā occupied a special position in traditional Samoan chiefly culture.[13] Based on the context and implications of the exchange of the dove from the Indigenous Samoans to the La Pérouse Expedition in 1787, Tcherkézoff connects the presentation of the manumā with a pre-colonial Samoan spiritual belief that such animals could represent a formative link between the sacred (the spirits, gods, and supernatural figures) and humans.[13]

The importance of the manumā and other pigeons still survives in contemporary West Polynesian language traditions. A large body of muāgagana, or metaphorical proverbs, and alagaʻupu, or proverbial expressions, draws on the behaviour, capture, and preservation of these doves.[35] They continue to have a place in modern ceremonial speeches, or lauga, delivered by talking chiefs, or tulafale.[35]

Cultural Significance

[edit]

The exchange of a hand-reared many-coloured fruit dove between the Indigenous Samoans and the La Pérouse Expedition in 1787 represented far more than the giving of a gift to the Samoans. The cultural importance of the manumā can also be seen in Fa'asamoa, or Samoan custom.[36] A domesticated bird of this species was more than a pet or an ordinary source of food, and the bird itself symbolised an important aspect of Samoan society.[13]

It was part of a larger social and religious system that directly connected chiefs, or matai, with the ancestor spirits that legitimised their spiritual and political authority.[37] In the traditional West Polynesian view of the world, birds in general were not seen only as sources of food.[38] They could be understood as ata (meaning physical manifestations, shadows, or earthly connections) to aitu (the spirits of ancestors and deities) and to the supreme sky god, Tagaloaalagi.[38][39]

Within this belief system, offering an unusually tame manumā to the La Pérouse Expedition may have followed a highly ritual tradition rather than being an ordinary commercial exchange.[40] It is unclear what became of the manumā that La Perouse received, but based on the conflict between the French explorers and the Samoans that would follow, the French likely did not understand the cultural importance of the exchange.[40]

In pre-colonial West Polynesian society, an exceptionally tame, hand-raised bird, known as lata,[41] could demonstrate the spiritual power, or mana,[42] of a high-ranking chief.[43] Elite chiefs sometimes kept small, brightly coloured fruit doves as well as "decoy birds" for pigeon hunting inside their residences as sacred pets.[43] Lata birds in the pigeon and dove family in these households would perch on unique perches called tūlā.[43] In this setting, the birds could act as symbols of political legitimacy and a chief's proper relationship with the spiritual world.[43]

Because of this status, strict rules about rank, dress, food, and social behaviour, including dietary restrictions (known as sā) governed access to these birds.[43][44] Rarer birds, such as the manumā, that lived high in the forest canopy were associated with the highest levels of the chiefly system.[43]

"Pigeon-netting" mounds

[edit]

The importance of pigeons and doves was also preserved in the archaeological and ethnographic record of West Polynesia.[44] Across the region, archaeologists have identified highly specialised stone structures known as "star mounds", a name based on their distinctive projecting arms.[45][46] In Samoa, complex chiefdoms built large earthen and stone platforms called tia seu lupe, meaning "mounds for netting pigeons", between about 1000 and 1500 CE.[44][46] These structures required organised labour at the village level and show how important pigeon hunting had become within Samoan society.[44][46] Archaeological excavations and later analysis indicate that the mounds were used as ritual spaces for elite hunting and seasonal competitions over forest resources.[46][44] Large pigeons, such as the lupe, were the main targets and were used in widespread ceremonial feasting, though they were also considered sacred and "decoy pigeons" of the lupe were also kept by elite Samoan chiefs.[47] Smaller fruit-eating birds such as the manumā were also captured and became part of these elite networks.[40]

Similar structures existed in Tonga, where they were known as sia heu lupe.[48][49] The practice of ritual pigeon hunting formed part of a broader West Polynesian system in which access to birds could be connected to prestige, social status, and political power.[48][49]

The Samoan and Tongan pigeon-netting structures were not identical, however, and their different designs reflect different forms of political organisation. In Samoa, the tia seu lupe were complex and relatively decentralised "star mounds".[46][50] They were built with stone-faced retaining walls and usually had between one and eleven projections (or arms), though most commonly, the structures had 4-8 arms.[43] Archaeological work on Manono Island has also documented stone retaining walls around the mounds there.[51] During pigeon-catching, hunters were positioned around the mound, probably one at each projection, where they sat concealed in temporary brush huts (called fale seu)[52] while using long nets to catch pigeons.[53] Inside the huts, pigeon hunters would sit on specific stools called nōfoaga seu lupe.[52]

The Tongan sia heu lupe had a very different design.[48] These structures were much larger and more uniform, usually taking the form of massive, flat-topped circular or oval platforms that could reach about five meters in height.[48][54] Unlike the Samoan mounds, they did not have projecting arms.[48] Their design supported large-scale, coordinated pigeon netting carried out under centralised royal control.[48][54] The contrast between the two types of structures reflects different paths toward political centralisation in Samoa and Tonga.[48]

Status

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While not listed as threatened or endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), their population is in decline in American Samoa. The justification of the conservation status is that the decline is not extreme enough and the restricted area is not small enough for the vulnerability status.[6]

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, large numbers of this bird were reported on Tutuila, American Samoa. In the 1970s, a population survey found there were around 80 individuals present. In the 1990s, there were 50 individuals on Tutuila reported.[3]

Biologists with the American Samoa Department of Marine and Wildlife Resources and workers from Pacific Bird Conservation and the Toledo Zoo captured four many-coloured fruit dove to begin a captive breeding project at Association of Zoos and Aquariums facilities.[2]

The many-coloured fruit dove's chief food source, the banyan fruit, are also in decline due to deforestation and their susceptibility to storm damage. In the 1990s, Cyclone Val and Cyclone Ofa killed or damaged a number of banyan trees, or otherwise stripped them bare of leaves and fruit. Hunting is another cause of the bird's decline on Tutuila. Hunters in search of lupe (Pacific imperial pigeon Ducula pacifica) or manutagi (purple-capped fruit-doves Ptilinopus porphyraceus) may kill many-coloured fruit doves instead.[3] In interviews conducted by American Samoa environmental officials, more than a quarter of hunters reported accidentally shooting a many-coloured fruit dove.[9]

References

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  1. ↑ BirdLife International (2016). "Ptilinopus perousii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016 e.T22691410A93311416. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22691410A93311416.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 "Population Enhancement for Manuma". Pacific Bird Conservation. Retrieved 2021-07-09.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Craig, P., ed. (2009). Natural History Guide to American Samoa (PDF) (3rd ed.). Pago Pago, American Samoa: U.S. National Park Service.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  4. 1 2 Fingan, Chance (2008-04-28). "Creature Feature: the Many-Colored Fruit Dove". National Parks Traveler. Retrieved 2021-07-09.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  5. 1 2 3 4 "Ptilinopus perousii (Many-colored Fruit Dove; Many-colored Fruit-Dove)". WorldSpecies.org. Retrieved 2021-07-09.
  6. 1 2 "Many-coloured Fruit-dove (Ptilinopus perousii) - BirdLife species factsheet". datazone.birdlife.org. Retrieved 2021-07-16.
  7. ↑ Oiseaux.net. "Ptilope de La Pérouse - Ptilinopus perousii - Many-colored Fruit Dove". www.oiseaux.net. Retrieved 2021-07-25.
  8. ↑ "Fossilworks: Ptilinopus perousii". fossilworks.org. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
  9. 1 2 MacKinnon, J. B. (2020-03-19). "The Rich Meals That Keep Wild Animals on the Menu". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2021-07-09.
  10. ↑ "Definition of MANUMA". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 2021-07-22.
  11. ↑ Baptista, Luis F.; Trail, Pepper W.; Horblit, H. M.; Boesman, Peter F. D.; Garcia, Ernest (2020-03-04). "Many-colored Fruit-Dove (Ptilinopus perousii)". Birds of the World.
  12. 1 2 AviList Core Team (2025). "AviList: The Global Avian Checklist, v2025". doi:10.2173/avilist.v2025. Retrieved 2026-09-21.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Tcherkézoff, Serge. "Part One: the Samoan discovery of Europeans (1722-1848), Chapter 4. La Pérouse, the Ignoble Savage, and the Europeans as 'spirits'". Press Files, The Australian National University (ANU.edu). Archived from the original on 19 September 2026. Retrieved 19 September 2026.
  14. 1 2 3 "Count of La Pérouse | Château de Versailles". en.chateauversailles.fr. Retrieved 2026-09-19.
  15. 1 2 Williams, Roger L. (2003). French Botany in the Enlightenment. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-0187-7. ISBN 978-90-481-6213-0.
  16. ↑ "Depicting Geographic Knowledge: Mariners' Drawings from Salem, Massachusetts". Colonial Society of Massachusetts. Retrieved 2026-09-19.
  17. 1 2 La Pérouse, Jean François de Galaup; Milet de Mureau, Louis-Marie-Antoine Destouff (1798). A voyage round the world in the years 1785, 1786, 1787 and 1788 [microform]. Canadiana.org. London : Printed for J. Johnson ... ISBN 978-0-665-36117-3. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "United States Exploring Expedition (1838-1842) | Smithsonian Institution". www.si.edu. Retrieved 2026-09-19.
  19. ↑ "Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Retrieved 2026-09-19.
  20. ↑ Chapman, Bert. Initial Visions of Paradise: Antebellum U.S. Government Initial Visions of Paradise: Antebellum U.S. Government Documents on the South Pacific Documents on the South Pacific. Purdue University, Purdue University E-Publications. Published October 2004. Accessed 19 September 2026. Online PDF
  21. ↑ sysadmin (1795 1856). "Drayton, Joseph". Smithsonian Institution Archives. Retrieved 2026-09-19. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. 1 2 "History of scientific journals | Royal Society". royalsociety.org. Retrieved 2026-09-19.
  23. ↑ "History of Philosophical Transactions | Royal Society". royalsociety.org. Retrieved 2026-09-19.
  24. 1 2 "United States Exploring Expedition, 1838-1842". www.sil.si.edu. Retrieved 2026-09-19.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Engraved printing plate "Ptilouopus Perousei"". National Museum of American History. Retrieved 19 September 2026.
  26. 1 2 3 4 Collector Unknown. "Search the Division of Birds Collections: Search By Field Results for 'A14828' in the USNM field. Specimen/Lot. Special Collections: Types. Current Identification: Ptilinopus perousii perousii". Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History: NMNH Research & Collections; Vertebrate Zoology; Birds Collections. Archived from the original on 19 September 2026. Retrieved 19 September 2026.
  27. ↑ Bruce, Murray; Bahr, Norbert (17 November 2020). "The discovery and naming of the remarkable Tooth-billed Pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris) of Samoa and the history of the reception, attempted suppression and acceptance of Titian Peale's report on the mammals and birds of the United States Exploring Expedition 1838–1842 (1849), with a summary of the status of Peale's new species". Sherbornia: An Open-Access Journal of Bibliographic and Nomenclatural Research in Zoology. 6: 1–42 – via ResearchGate.
  28. ↑ La Pérouse, Jean-François de Galaup; Milet-Mureau, L. A. (Louis Antoine); Mourelle de la Rúa, Francisco Antonio; Pingré, Alexandre Guy (1797). Voyage de La Pérouse autour du Monde. University of California Libraries. Paris, Imprimerie de la République.
  29. ↑ "Rodama: a blog of 18th-century & Revolutionary France: La Pérouse's Voyage - publication history". Rodama. 2018-04-19. Retrieved 2026-09-20.
  30. 1 2 La Pérouse, Jean François de Galaup; Milet de Mureau, Louis-Marie-Antoine Destouff (1798). The voyage of La Pérouse round the world, in the years 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788, with the nautical tables [microform]. Canadiana.org. London : Printed for John Stockdale ... ISBN 978-0-665-37562-0. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  31. ↑ La Pérouse, Jean François de Galaup; Milet de Mureau, Louis-Marie-Antoine Destouff (1798). The voyage of La Pérouse round the world, in the years 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788, with the nautical tables [microform]. Canadiana.org. London : Printed for John Stockdale ... ISBN 978-0-665-37563-7. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  32. 1 2 Van Wyhe, John (March 2014). "The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online: The Beagle Library. Record: La Pérouse, Jean François de Galaup de. 1798-9. A voyage round the world performed in the years 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788. 2 vols., atlas. London: T. Johnson. Volume 3". The Beagle Library, The Complete Library of Charles Darwin. Retrieved 19 September 2026.
  33. 1 2 Serra, Gianluca; Wood, G.; Faiilagi, S.; Foliga, S.; Uili, Moeumu; Enoka, F. (2020-12-16). "Using Samoan traditional ecological knowledge to identify calls of the critically endangered endemic tooth-billed pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris)". Pacific Conservation Biology. 27 (3): 275–283. doi:10.1071/PC20052.
  34. 1 2 Craig, Peter, ed. Natural History Guide to American Samoa. 3rd ed. Pago Pago: National Park of American Samoa, Dept. of Marine and Wildlife Resources, and American Samoa Community College, 2009. Online PDF
  35. 1 2 Schultz, E. (Erich), 1870-1935 (1980). Samoan proverbial expressions = Alaga'upu fa'a-Samoa / collected, translated and explained by E. Schultz ; translated into English by Brother Herman ; cover design by Iosua Toafa. Polynesian Press. ISBN 0908597010.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  36. ↑ Te Rangi Hiroa (Peter H. Buck) (1930). Samoan Material Culture.
  37. ↑ Krämer, Dr. Augustin (2000). The Samoa Islands: An Outline of a Monograph With Particular Consideration of German Samoa: Constitution, Pedigrees and Traditions With 3 Plates, 4 Maps and 44 illustra. Translated by Verhaaren, Theodore. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2219-4.
  38. 1 2 Richter-Gravier, Raphael. Manu narratives of Polynesia: A comparative study of birds in 300 traditional Polynesian stories. Volume II. March 2019. Accessed 19 September 2026. Online PDF
  39. ↑ Holmes, Lyell; Holmes, Ellen (30 September 2024). "The Samoan Creation Legend. Published by the National Park of American Samoa, information recorded by anthropologists Lyell and Ellen Holmes in their 2002 study collection: Samoan Village, Then and Now". National Park of American Samoa | NPS.gov. National Parks Service. Retrieved 19 September 2026.
  40. 1 2 3 Tcherkezoff, Serge (2008-08-01). First Contacts in Polynesia: The Samoan Case (1722–1848) Western Misunderstandings about Sexuality and Divinity. doi:10.22459/FCP.08.2008. ISBN 978-1-921536-01-4.
  41. ↑ Pratt, George (1893). A Grammar and Dictionary of the Samoan Language: With English and Samoan Vocabulary. London Missionary Society.
  42. ↑ Shore, Brad. "Mana and Tapu". "Developments in Polynesian Ethnology" Project, The University of Hawai'i Press Open Access (in US English). Shore's "Mana and Tapu" paper is Chapter 5 in the anthropological collection "Developments in Polynesian Ethnology" by Alan Howard and Robert Borofsky. Archived from the original on 19 September 2026. Retrieved 19 September 2026.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Quintus, Seth; Clark, Jeffrey T. (March 2019). "Ritualizing Hierarchy: Power Strategies and Pigeon Catching in Ancient Samoa". Journal of Anthropological Research. 75 (1): 48–68. doi:10.1086/701272. ISSN 0091-7710.
  44. 1 2 3 4 5 Martinsson-Wallin, Helene. Samoan Archaeology and Cultural Heritage: Monuments and People, Memory and History. Hosted online by Archaeopress. Accessed 19 September 2026. Online PDF
  45. ↑ Filoialii, Leaso; Barber, Kalani; Samira, Susana T.; Tasiaeate, Chief (29 October 2025). "Facebook Exclusive Video Podcast: "Tia Seu Lupe (Star Mound)"". Pulse of Polynesia Podcast. Archived from the original on 19 September 2026. Retrieved 19 September 2026.
  46. 1 2 3 4 5 Klenck, Joel (30 September 2016). Report for the Manu'a Archaeological Survey, Luatele or Judds Crater, Island Of Ta'u, American Samoa. The National University of Samoa. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.32251.95522.
  47. ↑ The Journal of the Polynesian Society, Volumes 33-34. New Plymouth, New Zealand: Polynesian Society of New Zealand. 1924.
  48. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Burley, David V. (1996-01-01). "Sport, Status, and Field Monuments in the Polynesian Chiefdom of Tonga: The Pigeon Snaring Mounds of Northern Ha'apai". Journal of Field Archaeology. 23 (4). Routledge: 421–435. doi:10.1179/009346996791973765. ISSN 0093-4690.
  49. 1 2 "The SAA Archaeological Record • May 2022, Volume 22 Number 3 • LIDAR, The Chiefly Sport of Pigeon Snaring, and Political Theater in the Polynesian Kingdom of Tonga". onlinedigeditions.comhttps. Retrieved 2026-09-20.
  50. ↑ "Figure 8: Feature 001, Locus 2, the first ray of the star mound or tia..." ResearchGate. Retrieved 2026-09-20.
  51. ↑ Sand, Christophe; Baret, David; Bolé, Jacques; Ouetcho, André-John; Sahib, Mohammed (2018-03-01). "Sāmoan settlement pattern and star mounds of Manono Island". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 127: 91–110. doi:10.15286/jps.127.1.91-110.
  52. 1 2 Mallon, Sean (29 May 2012). "Nōfoaga seu lupe (pigeon netting stool) from Sāmoa". Museum of New Zealand; Te Papa Tongarewa. Retrieved 20 September 2026.
  53. ↑ Turner, George (4 December 2004). "Samoa, A Hundred Years Ago And Long Before". Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 19 September 2026.
  54. 1 2 Spennemann, Dirk H.R. (4 November 2016). The extension of Popua township (Tongatapu, Kingdom of Tonga) and its impact on the archaeological sites in the area. Archaeological impact statement and outline of a cultural management plan for the preservation of a group of four sia heu lupe (Pigeon snaring mounds). Charles Sturt University.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Watling, Dick (2001) A Guide to the Birds of Fiji & Western Polynesia, Environmental Consultants (Fiji), Suva.
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