Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 February 2009
Hitler's foreign policy is still an area of widespread interest - particularly the question of its inner coherence. The present consensus goes back to the early 1950s and 1960s, when the German attack upon Russia was viewed as one stage in Hitler's quest for European hegemony or even world domination. While Alan Bullock viewed Hitler as an opportunist, Hugh Trevor-Roper in his essay on Hitler's war aims interpreted Hitler's invasion of Russia as a systematic step in Hitler's programme. Since then this model has been highly refined and systematized, notably by Andreas Hillgruber, who argues that Hitler's foreign policy programme had already been formulated long before he came to power, particularly in Mein Kampf and Hitler's Second book. On this model National Socialist foreign policy was programmatically fixed and Hillgruber goes as far to say that Hitler's programme ‘alone determined the great line of German policy in general’ and that he devoted all the energies available to him to realizing it. Yet even before Hillgruber had formulated his model, case studies were available which appeared to contradict its inner coherence and logic. Serious objections have also been raised by Martin Broszat, who describes Hitler's idea of an eastern empire as a ‘metaphor and Utopian figure of speech’.
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14 Michalks, ‘Von Antikominternpakt’, pp. 477ff.
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16 Hitler in the summer of 1942 realized the sector vulnerable to a Soviet breakthrough. He issued orders to reinforce them by anti-tank defences in depth and the transfer of one Panzer Division from France. Haider did nothing. The Russian breakthrough in November 1942 occurred at precisely the point predicted by Hitler. See Warlimont, W., Im Hauptquartier der Wehrmacht 1939–1945 (Frankfurt, 1962), p. 266Google Scholar; Kehrig, M., Stalingrad: Analyse und Dokumentation einer Schlacht (Stuttgart, 1974), passim.Google Scholar
17 Quote from Groscurth, H., Tagebücher eines Abwehroffiziers 1938–1940 (Stuttgart, 1970), p. 478Google Scholar. But see also Leach, B. A., German strategy against Russia 1939–1941 (Oxford, 1973), pp. 53ff. and Ritter, Goerdeler, pp. 209ff.Google Scholar
18 Such as General Karl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel, the deputy chief of the general staff, General Wagner, the quartermaster-general, General Fellgiebel, inspector-general of signals, and Colonel (later General) von Treskow, staff officer la of the operations department of the general staff, as well as members of the OKW, like the chief of the Abwehr Admiral Canaris, General Oster, one of his departmental heads, and General Thomas, head of the war economy and armaments office.
19 Groscurth, Tagebücher, pp. 490–9.
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22 ibid. 21 May 1940.
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33 ibid. 11, entry for 3 July 1940.
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36 Loc. cit.
37 Seidl, A. (ed.), Die Beziehungen zwischen Deutschland und der Sowjetunion 1939–1941 (Tübingen, 1949), doc. nos. 127, 128. This collection of official documents comes mainly from the Nuremberg Trials. Part of it has been reprinted in DGFP, though the bulk of the material is now in the Politisches Archiv of the Bonn Foreign Office. Information supplied to the author by the Politisches Archiv, July 1974.Google Scholar
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39 Jodl-Diary, IMT, XXXVIII, 414.
40 Halder-KTB, 1, entry 22 May 1940.
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46 Seidl, Die Beziehungen, doc. no. 134.
47 ibid. doc. no. 138.
48 ibid. doc. no. 139.
49 ibid. doc. no. 149.
50 ibid. doc. no. 137.
51 DGFP, series D, ix, doc. nos. 344, 349, 359.
52 Seidl, Die Beziehungen, doc. no. 142; Soviet documents, p. 457.
53 Soviet documents, loc. cit.
54 Halder-KTB, 1, 25 June 1940.
55 IMT, x, Ribbentrop evidence, p. 331.
56 Seidl, Die Beziehungen, doc. no. 141.
57 ibid. doc. no. 145.
58 Halder-KTB, 1, 25 June 1940.
59 ibid. 26 June 1940.
60 ibid. 27 June 1940.
61 ibid. 5 July 1940.
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64 ibid. 11 July 1940.
65 ibid. 13 July 1940; see also Raeder notes on this conference in Klee, Das Unternehmen, p. 240; Jacobsen, 1939–1945, p. 157 and IMT, xxxiv, 713.
66 Halder-KTB, II, 22 July 1940.
67 Loc. cit.
68 See note 31 above.
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70 See note 60; also Wagner, Lagevorträge, 21 July 1940.
71 Lagevorträge, loc. cit.
72 ibid. Besprechung beim Führer am 31 Juli auf dem Berghof, pp. 125–8; Halder-KTB, 11, 31 July 1940.
73 Such as an attack on Gibraltar via Spain, the support of the Italians by German armoured units in North Africa to capture Egypt and the Suez Canal, striking as far north as Haifa.
74 Halder-KTB, 11, 31 July 1940.
75 Seidl, Die Beziehungen, doc. no. 148.
76 Loc. cit.
77 B. Meissner, ‘Die kommunistische Machtübernahme in den Baltischen Staaten’ in VfZg, 1954.
78 DGFP, Series D, x, doc. no. 221.
79 ibid. doc. no. 171.
80 ibid. doc. nos. 215 and 238.
81 See note 72.
82 Soviet Documents, III, 461ff.
83 DGFP, series D, x, doc. nos. 348, 349, 353.
84 ibid. doc. no. 129.
85 ibid. doc. no. 388.
86 ibid. doc. nos. 154, 384.
87 See note 55.
88 Bundesarchiv-Militürarchiv (BA-MA), Freiburg, Nachlass Greiner, fo. 17, DGFP, series D, x, 541, note 1; also doc. no. 389.
89 Jacobsen, H. A.(ed.), Kriegstagebuch des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht (KTB-OKW), 1 (Frankfurt, 1965), 25 and 29 Aug. 1940.Google Scholar
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91 Soviet documents, III, 462.
92 KTB-OKW, 1, 29 Aug 1940.
93 DGFP, series D, x, doc. no. 413.
94 For detailed discussion see Hillgruber, Hitler, King Carol.
95 Nuremberg document no. PS-2353, copy in Institut Für Zeitgeschichte, Munich.
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98 BA-MA, Nachlass Greiner, fo. 11. Surprisingly, this and several other entries have not been included in the KTB-OKW.
99 KTB-OKW, 1, 14 Aug. 1940 and 29 Aug. 1940.
100 ibid. 30 Aug. 1940.
101 ibid. 10 Sept. 1940.
102 Seidl, Die Beziehungen, doc. no. 154.
103 ibid. doc. nos. 157, 158, 159.
104 ibid. doc. no. 160.
105 ibid. doc. no. 162.
106 Soviet Documents, III, 468.
107 Halder-KTB, 11, 14 Sept. 1940.
108 Loc. cit.
109 Seidl, Die Beziehungen, doc. no. 168.
110 KTB-OKW, I, 19 Sept. 1940.
111 ibid. 19 Sept. 1940; Halder-KTB, 11, 9 Sept. and 19 Sept. 1940.
112 Hillgruber, Hitler, König Carol, pp. 101ff.
113 DGFP, series D, xi, doc. no. 227.
114 ibid. doc. no. 246.
115 KTB-OKW, 1, 22 Oct. 1940.
116 ibid. 9 Nov. 1940.
117 ibid. 2 Aug. 1940.
118 G. L. Weinberg, ‘Der deutsche Entschluss zum Amgriff auf die Sowjetunion’ in Vf£g, 1953.
119 IMT, x, 589ff.; xiv, 117ff.; xx, 629ff.; xv, 428ff. For the sheer dilettantism, the haphazard and improvised nature of Aufbau-Ost see the details provided by E. Helmdach, former group commander of the Wehrmacht's ‘Fremde Heere Ost’ (he was personally responsible for the Soviet Union) in Überfall: Der deutsch-sowjetische Aufmarsch (Neckargemünd, 1975), and also his Täuschungen und Versäumnisse (Bergam See, 1979).Google Scholar
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121 BA-MA, Schematische Gliederung der Kommandobehörden und Truppen 1940 vom 9 June 1940 bis zum 21 Dec. 1940, no. H 10–3/33 1–51.
122 KTB-OKW, 1, 29 Aug. 1940; Hitler made the point that German military measures had already had a ‘ braking effect’ upon the Russians in Finland and the Balkans.
123 KTB-Greiner, 5 Sept. 1940 in IMT, XXVII, 72, doc. no. 1229-PS. Again this entry has been omitted in the published version of the KTB-OKW.
124 KTB-OKW, 1, 30 Jan. 1941.
125 Kriegstagebuch der Seekriegsleitung (KTB-SKL), 2 Jan. 1940 in IMT, XXXII, 178.
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131 DGFP, series D, xi, doc. no. 44; Presseisen, Germany and Japan, pp. 256ff.
132 IMT, xxviii, doc. no. 2842-PS, p. 570.
133 ibid. See also Adler, Isolationist impulse, passim.
134 Halder-KTB, 11, 23 Sept. 1940.
135 Seidl, Die Beziehungen, doc. no. 167.
136 DGFP, series D, xi, doc. no. 129.
137 Seidl, Die Beziehungen, doc. no. 167.
138 DGFP, series D, xi, doc. no. 118; see also J. M. Menzel, ‘Der geheime deutsch-japanische Notenaustausch zum Dreimächtepakt’ in VfZg, 1957.
139 IMT, xxxiv, Assmann evidence, p. 691; Wagner, Lagevorträge, p. 143, contains a detailed report of the views put by Raeder to Hitler on 26 Sept. 1940. Russian concern was not mentioned; Russia in fact was mentioned in passing only, the main issues being the Mediterranean, the prospective talks with Franco and Pétain and colonial problems. The report contradicts Assmann's evidence. As to the reception of the tripartite pact within the diplomatic circles in Moscow see Grafencu, G., Europas letzte Tage (Zürich, 1946), pp. 133ff.Google Scholar
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143 DGFP, series D, xi, doc. no. 236.
144 KTB-OKW, 28 Oct. 1940.
145 Halder-KTB, II 15 Oct. 1940.
146 ibid. loc. cit.
147 ibid. 24 Oct. 1940.
148 ibid. 4 Nov. 1940.
149 ibid. loc. cit.
150 DGFP, series D, xi, doc. no. 172.
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155 ibid. doc. no. 178.
156 ibid. doc. nos. 178–179.
157 DGFP, series D, xi, doc. no. 325.
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162 ibid.
163 ibid. doc. nos. 329, 348.
164 ibid. doc. no. 309.
165 See note 163.
166 Thus Hitler to his army adjutant Major Engel, quoted by Hillgruber, Hitlers Strategie, p. 356.
167 DGFP, series D, xi, doc. no. 379.
168 ibid. doc. no. 405.
169 ibid.
170 KTB-OKW, 1, 5 Dec. 1940; Halder-KTB, 11, 15 Dec. 1940.
171 Halder-KTB, loc. cit.
172 Hubatsch, Hitlers Weisungen, Weisung Nr. 21: Fall, ‘Barbarossa’, pp. 97ff.
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