Illustrations

xvii

Notes on Contributors

xix

General Editors' Preface

xxv

Acknowledgments

xxix

Introduction: The Modern Physical and Mathematical Sciences

(20)

Mary Jo Nye

PART I. THE PUBLIC CULTURES OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES AFTER 1800

Theories of Scientific Method: Models for the Physico-Mathematical Sciences

(15)

Nancy Cartwright

Stathis Psillos

Hasok Chang

Mathematics, Science, and Nature

(3)

Realism, Unity, and Completeness

(3)

Positivism

(1)

From Evidence to Theory

(3)

Experimental Traditions

(4)

Intersections of Physical Science and Western Religion in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

(18)

Frederick Gregory

The Plurality of Worlds

(2)

The End of the World

(4)

The Implications of Materialism

(3)

From Confrontation to Peaceful Coexistence to Reengagement

(3)

Contemporary Concerns

(5)

A Twisted Tale: Women in the Physical Sciences in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

(18)

Margaret W. Rossiter

Precedents

(1)

Great Exceptions

(3)

Less-Well-Known Women

(1)

Rank and File -- Fighting for Access

(2)

Women's Colleges -- A World of Their Own

(1)

Graduate Work, (Male) Mentors, and Laboratory Access

(1)

``Men's'' and ``Women's'' Work in Peace and War

(2)

Scientific Marriages and Families

(1)

Underrecognition

(1)

Post-World War II and ``Women's Liberation''

(3)

Rise of Gender Stereotypes and Sex-Typed Curricula

(2)

Scientists and Their Publics: Popularization of Science in the Nineteenth Century

(19)

David M. Knight

Making Science Loved

(1)

The March of Mind

(1)

Read All About It

(1)

Crystal Palaces

(1)

The Church Scientific

(2)

Deep Space and Time

(3)

Beyond the Fringe

(2)

A Second Culture?

(2)

Talking Down

(1)

Signs and Wonders

(3)

Literature and the Modern Physical Sciences

(22)

Pamela Gossin

Two Cultures: Bridges, Trenches, and Beyond

(2)

The Historical Interrelations of Literature and Newtonian Science

(3)

Literature and the Physical Sciences after 1800: Forms and Contents

(1)

Literature and Chemistry

(1)

Literature and Astronomy, Cosmology, and Physics

100

(3)

Interdisciplinary Perspectives and Scholarship

103

(3)

Literature and the Modern Physical Sciences in the History of Science

106

(2)

Literature and the Modern Physical Sciences: New Forms and Directions

108

(5)

PART II. DISCIPLINE BUILDING IN THE SCIENCES: PLACES, INSTRUMENTS, COMMUNICATION

Mathematical Schools, Communities, and Networks

113

(20)

David E. Rowe

Texts and Contexts

114

(3)

Shifting Modes of Production and Communication

117

(3)

Mathematical Research Schools in Germany

120

(3)

Other National Traditions

123

(4)

Gottingen's Modern Mathematical Community

127

(2)

Pure and Applied Mathematics in the Cold War Era and Beyond

129

(4)

The Industry, Research, and Education Nexus

133

(21)

Terry Shinn

Germany as a Paradigm of Heterogeneity

134

(4)

France as a Paradigm of Homogeneity

138

(5)

England as a Case of Underdetermination

143

(4)

The United States as a Case of Polymorphism

147

(5)

The Stone of Sisyphus

152

(2)

Remaking Astronomy: Instruments and Practice in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

154

(20)

Robert W. Smith

The Astronomy of Position

154

(6)

Different Goals

160

(5)

Opening Up the Electromagnetic Spectrum

165

(2)

Into Space

167

(3)

Very Big Science

170

(4)

Languages in Chemistry

174

(17)

Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent

1787: A ``Mirror of Nature'' to Plan the Future

176

(5)

1860: Conventions to Pacify the Chemical Community

181

(5)

1930: Pragmatic Rules to Order Chaos

186

(3)

Toward a Pragmatic Wisdom

189

(2)

Imagery and Representation in Twentieth-Century Physics

191

(28)

Arthur I. Miller

The Twentieth Century

193

(1)

Albert Einstein: Thought Experiments

194

(1)

Types of Visual Images

195

(2)

Atomic Physics during 1913--1925: Visualization Lost

197

(3)

Atomic Physics during 1925--1926: Visualization versus Visualizability

200

(3)

Atomic Physics in 1927: Visualizability Redefined

203

(2)

Nuclear Physics: A Clue to the New Visualizability

205

(3)

Physicists Rerepresent

208

(1)

The Deep Structure of Data

209

(3)

Visual Imagery and the History of Scientific Thought

212

(7)

PART III. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS: PROBLEMS THROUGH THE EARLY 1900s

The Physical Sciences in the Life Sciences

219

(18)

Frederic L. Holmes

Applications of the Physical Sciences to Biology in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

221

(3)

Chemistry and Digestion in the Eighteenth Century

224

(2)

Nineteenth-Century Investigations of Digestion and Circulation

226

(4)

Transformations in Investigations of Respiration

230

(3)

Physiology and Animal Electricity

233

(4)

Chemical Atomism and Chemical Classification

237

(18)

Hans-Werner Schutt

Chemical versus Physical Atoms

238

(1)

Atoms and Gases

239

(2)

Calculating Atomic Weights

241

(2)

Early Attempts at Classification

243

(2)

Types and Structures

245

(3)

Isomers and Stereochemistry

248

(2)

Formulas and Models

250

(1)

The Periodic System and Standardization in Chemistry

251

(3)

Two Types of Bonds

254

(1)

The Theory of Chemical Structure and Its Applications

255

(17)

Alan J. Rocke

Early Structuralist Notions

255

(2)

Electrochemical Dualism and Organic Radicals

257

(2)

Theories of Chemical Types

259

(3)

The Emergence of Valence and Structure

262

(3)

Further Development of Structural Ideas

265

(4)

Applications of the Structure Theory

269

(3)

Theories and Experiments on Radiation from Thomas Young to X Rays

272

(17)

Sungook Hong

The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light

272

(5)

New Kinds of Radiation and the Idea of the Continuous Spectrum

277

(3)

The Development of Spectroscopy and Spectrum Analysis

280

(4)

The Electromagnetic Theory of Light and the Discovery of X Rays

284

(3)

Theory, Experiment, Instruments in Optics

287

(2)

Force, Energy, and Thermodynamics

289

(22)

Crosbie Smith

The Mechanical Value of Heat

290

(6)

A Science of Energy

296

(8)

The Energy of the Electromagnetic Field

304

(4)

Recasting Energy Physics

308

(3)

Electrical Theory and Practice in the Nineteenth Century

311

(20)

Bruce J. Hunt

Early Currents

311

(1)

The Age of Faraday and Weber

312

(2)

Telegraphs and Cables

314

(3)

Maxwell

317

(2)

Cables, Dynamos, and Light Bulbs

319

(2)

The Maxwellians

321

(3)

Electrons, Ether, and Relativity

324

(7)

PART IV. ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR SCIENCES IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure, 1900--1927

331

(19)

Olivier Darrigol

The Quantum of Action

332

(2)

Quantum Discontinuity

334

(2)

From Early Atomic Models to the Bohr Atom

336

(3)

Einstein and Sommerfeld on Bohr's Theory

339

(1)

Bohr's Correspondence Principle versus Munich Models

340

(1)

A Crisis, and Quantum Mechanics

341

(3)

Quantum Gas, Radiation, and Wave Mechanics

344

(2)

The Final Synthesis

346

(4)

Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics

350

(25)

Jeff Hughes

Radioactivity and the ``Political Economy'' of Radium

352

(3)

Institutionalization, Concentration, and Specialization: The Emergence of a Discipline, 1905--1914

355

(5)

``An Obscure Oddity''? Radioactivity Reconstituted, 1919--1925

360

(2)

Instruments, Techniques, and Disciplines: Controversy, 1924--1932

362

(6)

From ``Radioactivity'' to ``Nuclear Physics'': A Discipline Transformed, 1932--1940

368

(2)

Nuclear Physics and Particle Physics: Postwar Differentiation, 1945-1960

370

(5)

Quantum Field Theory: From QED to the Standard Model

375

(19)

Silvan S. Schweber

Quantum Field Theory in the 1930s

377

(5)

From Pions to the Standard Model: Conceptual Developments in Particle Physics

382

(6)

Quarks

388

(3)

Gauge Theories and the Standard Model

391

(3)

Chemical Physics and Quantum Chemistry in the Twentieth Century

394

(19)

Ana Simoes

Periods and Concepts in the History of Quantum Chemistry

395

(5)

The Emergence of Quantum Chemistry and the Problem of Reductionism

400

(4)

The Emergence of Quantum Chemistry in National Context

404

(3)

Quantum Chemistry as a Discipline

407

(4)

The Uses of Quantum Chemistry for the History and Philosophy of the Sciences

411

(2)

Plasmas and Solid-State Science

413

(16)

Michael Eckert

Prehistory: Contextual versus Conceptual

414

(3)

World War II: A Critical Change

417

(3)

Formative Years, 1945-1960

420

(5)

Consolidation and Ramifications

425

(2)

Models of Scientific Growth

427

(2)

Macromolecules: Their Structures and Functions

429

(20)

Yasu Furukawa

From Organic Chemistry to Macromolecules

430

(5)

Physicalizing Macromolecules

435

(2)

Exploring Biological Macromolecules

437

(3)

The Structure of Proteins: The Mark Connection

440

(3)

The Path to the Double Helix: The Signer Connection

443

(6)

PART V. MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY, AND COSMOLOGY SINCE THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

The Geometrical Tradition: Mathematics, Space, and Reason in the Nineteenth Century

449

(19)

Joan L. Richards

The Eighteenth-Century Background

450

(4)

Geometry and the French Revolution

454

(4)

Geometry and the German University

458

(2)

Geometry and English Liberal Education

460

(2)

Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometry

462

(2)

Geometry in Transition: 1850--1900

464

(4)

Between Rigor and Applications: Developments in the Concept of Function in Mathematical Analysis

468

(20)

Jesper Lutzen

Euler's Concept of Function

469

(1)

New Function Concepts Dictated by Physics

470

(1)

Dirichlet's Concept of Function

471

(3)

Exit the Generality of Algebra -- Enter Rigor

474

(3)

The Dreadful Generality of Functions

477

(2)

The Delta ``Function''

479

(2)

Generalized Solutions to Differential Equations

481

(3)

Distributions: Functional Analysis Enters

484

(4)

Statistics and Physical Theories

488

(17)

Theodore M. Porter

Statistical Thinking

489

(2)

Laws of Error and Variation

491

(3)

Mechanical Law and Human Freedom

494

(4)

Regularity, Average, and Ensemble

498

(2)

Reversibility, Recurrence, and the Direction of Time

500

(3)

Chance at the Fin de Siecle

503

(2)

Solar Science and Astrophysics

505

(17)

Joann Eisberg

Solar Physics: Early Phenomenology

508

(2)

Astronomical Spectroscopy

510

(2)

Theoretical Approaches to Solar Modeling: Thermodynamics and the Nebular Hypothesis

512

(2)

Stellar Spectroscopy

514

(2)

From the Old Astronomy to the New

516

(2)

Twentieth-Century Stellar Models

518

(4)

Cosmologies and Cosmogonies of Space and Time

522

(16)

Helge Kragh

The Nineteenth-Century Heritage

522

(1)

Galaxies and Nebulae until 1925

523

(2)

Cosmology Transformed: General Relativity

525

(1)

An Expanding Universe

526

(3)

Nonrelativistic Cosmologies

529

(1)

Gamow's Big Bang

530

(1)

The Steady State Challenge

531

(1)

Radio Astronomy and Other Observations

532

(1)

A New Cosmological Paradigm

533

(1)

Developments since 1970

534

(4)

The Physics and Chemistry of the Earth

538

(23)

Naomi Oreskes

Ronald E. Doel

Traditions and Conflict in the Study of the Earth

539

(3)

Geology, Geophysics, and Continental Drift

542

(3)

The Depersonalization of Geology

545

(4)

The Emergence of Modern Earth Science

549

(3)

Epistemic and Institutional Reinforcement

552

(9)

PART VI. PROBLEMS AND PROMISES AT THE END OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Science, Technology, and War

561

(18)

Alex Roland

Patronage

562

(4)

Institutions

566

(2)

Qualitative Improvements

568

(1)

Large-Scale, Dependable, Standardized Production

569

(1)

Education and Training

570

(1)

Secrecy

571

(2)

Political Coalitions

573

(1)

Opportunity Costs

574

(1)

Dual-Use Technologies

575

(2)

Morality

577

(2)

Science, Ideology, and the State: Physics in the Twentieth Century

579

(19)

Paul Josephson

Soviet Marxism and the New Physics

580

(6)

Aryan Physics and Nazi Ideology

586

(3)

Science and Pluralist Ideology: The American Case

589

(3)

The Ideological Significance of Big Science and Technology

592

(2)

The National Laboratory as Locus of Ideology and Knowledge

594

(4)

Computer Science and the Computer Revolution

598

(17)

William Aspray

Computing before 1945

598

(3)

Designing Computing Systems for the Cold War

601

(3)

Business Strategies and Computer Markets

604

(3)

Computing as a Science and a Profession

607

(4)

Other Aspects of the Computer Revolution

611

(4)

The Physical Sciences and the Physician's Eye: Dissolving Disciplinary Boundaries

615

(19)

Bettyann Holtzmann Kevles

Origins of CT in Academic and Medical Disciplines

617

(4)

Origins of CT in Private Industry

621

(4)

From Nuclear Magnetic Resonance to Magnetic Resonance Imaging

625

(4)

MRI and the Marketplace

629

(2)

The Future of Medical Imaging

631

(3)

Global Environmental Change and the History of Science

634

(17)

James Rodger Fleming

Enlightenment

636

(2)

Literary and Scientific Transformation: The American Case

638

(3)

Scientific Theories of Climatic Change

641

(4)

Global Warming: Early Scientific Work and Public Concern

645

(3)

Global Cooling, Global Warming

648

(3)

Index

651

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